Democracy vs. Absolutisn Essay

Democracy vs. Absolutism During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, there were various forms of government, including democracy and absolutism. Not only is this an important topic because it deals with the government, but it also deals with the citizens and their perception of the government. However, at this time democracy was a better form of government because the people share the power with the government, the person in power does not have absolute power, and it protects the rights of the people. Through democracy, the government shares the power with its citizens. Absolutism, on the other hand, is where the government comes before everything. According to King Louis XIV, â€Å"The head alone has the right to deliberate and decide, and the functions of all the other members consist only in carrying out the commands given to them. † King Louis believes his opinion is the only opinion that matters. On the other hand, democracy is better because it considers the opinions of other people. This makes it so that one person in charge is unable to have absolute power. Having too much power was also an issue in some countries in the 17th and 18th centuries. According to Machiavelli, fear and punishment will make the citizens comply with the decisions and ideas of their leader. Democracy is better than absolutism because citizens have the ability to form their own opinions without fear of punishment for disagreeing with their leader. The right to freedom of speech is one of the many rights people value in a democratic government. A democratic government respects the natural rights and freedoms of its citizens. By allowing its citizens to make their own choices, the citizens hold a positive view of the government. A democratic government allows the citizens to have their freedoms and doesn’t invade their privacy. By allowing everyone to have a say in the government, it makes the government easy to comply with. That is why it is an obvious assumption that the citizens will have a negative view on absolutism because they won’t have their basic freedoms. In conclusion, democracy is a better form of government because the government shares power with its citizens, the person in power does not have absolute power, and it protects rights of the people. For these reasons, a democracy is a more effective government when it comes to leading its people.

Dramatic features The Crucible Essay

‘The Crucible’ is always played exactly in its historical context with Puritan clothes and sets, it is rarely updated. What dramatic features does Miller employ to ensure the play maintains its relevance for a 21st century audience? In this essay I intend to discuss how Arthur Miller ensures that his play, which is set in Salem, Massachusetts, in the late 17th century, is still appealing and pertinent to a 21st century audience. Miller wrote ‘The Crucible’ in 1953, during the zenith of the McCarthy affairs in America. In 1692, the hysteria was owing to the alleged infiltration of witches under the command of Satan, while Joseph McCarthy was concerned with the supposed infiltration of Communists into American society. In both cases there were many innocent people accused and arrested, and panic bit into both communities. The play is relevant nowadays for many reasons: because it links with the situation in Afghanistan, it is exciting to watch because of the high tension and quite fast pace throughout, it incorporates dramatic irony to make the audience part of the action, and because it can appeal to so many different types of people. The reason why the whole Salem tragedy came about was because of an ancient paradox: a paradox still thriving and very relevant today. The paradox was the balance between individual freedom and prohibitive rules. The people of Salem had a religious theocracy, which was designed to keep the community together and to prevent any disunity in the neighbourhood. In this respect, the theocracy worked well. However, all governing systems must have rules of prohibition, or they simply will not work. Evidently, in Salem, the time had come when the repressions of order became too harsh in comparison to the dangers against which the order was set. The witch-hunt was a sign of the disarray when the balance began to swivel towards more individual freedom. An example of this paradox in modern society is the war in Afghanistan. Afghanistan was ruled by a religious theocracy, under the command of the Taliban. In order for the theocracy to be effective, the Taliban imposed prohibitive rules, such as the rule that all men must wear beards. Perhaps it was excessive individual freedom that led to the September 11th tragedy. Clearly, ‘The Crucible’ is a parable for many events like the Afghanistan situation with the Taliban. Just imagine the reaction of the Taliban if a child had started playing at ‘being an American’, like in ‘The Crucible’ children play at being witches. The anger and fear generated would have been just the same, despite being separated by over three hundred years. Even though times have changed since 1692, human nature is still identical, and tragic events like these will continue to happen because of our nature. It is futile writing a play that has a very relevant message to give to its audience, if the audience doesn’t stay until the end of the play. By using a structure that builds the tension progressively through the play, Miller ensures that his audience are kept firmly on the edges of their seats. He uses a climactic curtain at the end of each act, to entice the audience back to their seats after the interval. An example of this is the ‘cliff-hanger’ at the end of the first act, when the girls are hysterically accusing other women of being with the Devil.

Organisation leadership Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organisation leadership - Case Study Example 207). Traditionally, ineffective leadership has been considered as the absence of leadership, while research on leadership’s destructive aspects indicates that destructive leadership comprises a host of behaviors which is more than simply the absence of leadership (Ashforth, 1994). An example of destructive leadership in the workplace is the bullying offered to the employees by the leader or manager. Since they have the power and the decision making authority, seniors tend to inflict this power over the subordinates in an attempt to direct their actions. Bullying has a negative effect on the psychology of the employees and affects the organizational culture adversely. Other examples of destructive leadership behavior at the workplace include theft, corruption at the top level, and sabotage. The processes of socialization and assimilation administered by transformational leadership may, in effect, prove destructive. Some of the most unethical leaders with destructive behaviors in the history have been charismatic leaders, that have used their charisma for negative purposes rather than positive purposes (Luthans, Peterson, and Ibraveva, 1998; Padilla et al., 2007). A potential example of such charismatic leaders seen in the history is Hitler who although was very effective as a leader, yet made â€Å"a prime example of destructive leadership† (Padilla et al., 2007, p. 179). One of the values of Inquiro is to â€Å"focus on the user and all else will follow†. This means that Inquiro works according to the needs of the users and can go to any length to address those needs. Users’ needs may not always be ethical. Users may require information access to which, they are legally denied. For the same reason, Inquiro developed a stormy relationship with China. In its attempt to address the needs of the users, the company did not fully comply with the media censorship policies of China. Inquiro should have its own standards that should be consi dered the most important. According to Padilla et al. (2007, p. 179), dysfunctional leader behaviors interact with the susceptible followers in the contributing environment’s context to yield negative organizational results so that the followers are unable to resist and must consent to the destructive leader. In such a case, the destructive leader does not pay attention to the environmental context or the roles of the followers. As a result of this, an organizational petri dish is created in which unethical and destructive behavior is perpetuated in people who otherwise behave ethically. Inquiro should not require its employees to address those needs of the users that are not consistent with its established standards. Inquiro’s leadership is manipulative when it comes to paying the taxes. For the same reason, Inquiro was subjected to parliamentary scrutiny in the year 2012 because of its tax affairs. In the year 2011, the tax bill of Inquiro’s corporate was no m ore than 3.5 million pounds in spite of the fact that the company made a turnover of 396 million pounds. Inquiro manages to pay lesser tax by

Evalucation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Evalucation - Essay Example Below are the evaluation methods that are going to be employed: In order for the project to be a success, a proper understanding of the targeted public is prime. In order to understand the public a couple of data collection methods has to be involved. These will include surveys and questionnaires (Dennis 2). There will also be small groups conducting outreach programs to outsource detailed information. In the evaluation of this stage of the campaign, the use of data from the surveys and questionnaires shall be analyzed. The information on interviews collected by the outreach groups will also be analyzed. The evaluation points should be based on the opinions and attitude of the public. If the full demographic information achieved is convincing (positive attitude and opinion), then moving to the next step will be smooth and easy based on the information at hand (Dennis 4). This campaign employed giveaways, brochures, events, promotions, social media and media outreach as the tactics that would enable the creation of a strong public relation and awareness to make them register with Park on Morton student apartments. The evaluation of each or a combination of the above mentioned is pertinent as this is the point in which the campaign fails or flourishes. The best way to attract the attention of the public is through the use of Giveaways and Brochures. There will be free T-Shirts, lanyards, pens sunglasses and well-designed water bottles. To evaluate the effect of the Giveaways and Brochures, the focus will me on the way the public receives them and their attitude towards them. If this process is a success, there are a couple of things that are likely to occur: there will be an improved customer visit to Park on Morton offices for registration and inquiries. The events will be conducted in collaboration with local companies such as Bloomington Bagel Company and Kilroy’s on Kirkwood, Dunkirk and spots.

Business future Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business future - Assignment Example Chongqing has an average of 67 institutions of higher education with about 600,000 undergraduates entering them yearly. The region has 236 vocational schools housing half a million of the students. Therefore, this makes the availability of local skilled labor and the R&D operations cost effective. The region has a lower production cost therefore it makes the price index moderate unlike in Eastern China and the Western neighbor Chengdu (Liu, Zhang & Zhang, 2010, pp.72). Compared to Chinese cities like Shanghai and Beijing, Chongqing, strategically positioned, one can relatively move with ease from the metropolitan part of the city. Just next to the city center, the Southern Mountains provide plenty of outdoor opportunities and peace. At the outskirt, the rice paddies and historic villages are easily visible. The area is safe from gangsters and corruption. In 2009, the authorities in the city under the municipal Communist Party secretary by the name of Bo Xilai took a large-scale crackdown by arresting 4,893-suspected thugs, corrupt and the outlaws’ cadres. The arrests saw an end to the period of gangsters (Thompson, Lane & Bedford, 2010, pp. 98). The air quality is a most significant health concern in China. The region enjoys moderately good air quality compared to other areas in China. Its beautiful Riverside has been a key source of attraction. However, it experiences moderate instances of air pollution from the production industries around the city. The cultural life has the entire infrastructure needed. For example, the region has the traditional museums, the contemporary art, modern opera building, art schools, live houses, and the small theaters where the people watch Sichuan opera. English entertainment is quite limited (Liu, Zhang & Zhang, 2010, pp.88). The healthcare in the region is not as advanced like those in the cities of Shanghai and Chengdu. The global hospital clinic preferred among the expats

Documented Argument on Bilingual Education Annotated Bibliography

Documented Argument on Bilingual Education - Annotated Bibliography Example This article has the necessary information required in writing an introduction of an essay because it explains terms and scenarios such as bilingual education. The article ‘Bilingual Education: Arguments For And (Bogus) Arguments Against’ by Stephen D. Krashen explores the two goals of bilingual education as well as gives the various arguments for and against the bilingual education. It also gives the evidence for bilingual program such as the results of program evaluations, the effects of past education on the performance of immigrant children and measured capacity of these children to communicate in the first language as compared to another language. It gives the characteristic of exemplary bilingual programs in details as a way of convincing the readers on the advantages of the having the bilingual education in schools. The article further explains the baseless arguments that people usually use to attack the effectiveness of the bilingual education. It also gives an opportunity for the public opinion on this form of education. The information contained in the article can be used to give further details about bilingual educa tion in school. The book Bilingual Education in New York City by Cordasco Francesco is about the people of Puerto Rica in the mainland United States. It focuses on the populace living in New York experiencing changes at the current time. The group has been trying to adjust to these changes. One of the significant changes of bilingual education is where the Puerto Ricans have to learn English as a second language. The book further shows the effects of bilingual education on their traditions as well on their children who join schools in New York. The book gives the reasons as to why they do not credit the bilingual education systems. The book also provides the various studies carried out in New York and the results as well as solutions to children from Puerto Rica to speak English. It has information that is suitable in writing an

Training and Devlopment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Training and Devlopment - Coursework Example Companies usually find it very challenging to hire and retain employees, so training should be accompanied by other morale-boosting factors like positive work environments and flexibility. Although it may appear like this is too much investment (at face value), smart companies know that the rewards are much bigger and better than any investment. Efforts should be scaled around the following: Big corporations have always known the value of investing in their employees through learning. This has been an effective technique of training and sharpening their employees’ skills and then retaining them for long-term productivity, but it also still needs to be enhanced and optimized to meet the current standards of human resource training and development. When it comes to employee training corporations should think global, not local. Just because their programs are effective locally/internally does not mean they are the best or that they are doing very well. Competitors may be far much ahead. Whether focused on important job functions, performance concerns or â€Å"dry† issues, employee training will help corporations achieve superior results in their training programs as they gain access to a wealth of experience in creating and designing programs that deal with: Today’s corporate leaders have more responsibility and more of companies’ success depends on them. As a result, they also need training. It is important to note that the training a leader is expected to go through is very different from that which a new employee is subjected to. A leader’s training is focused on and fine-tuned to inspire leadership skills and responsibility at the very top of the company. The effective motivating, mentoring and coaching of leaders is usually the first and most critical step towards positively impacting company performance. Corporations ought to

Evaluating a website as a source for learning history Essay

Evaluating a website as a source for learning history - Essay Example Should history websites be boring? This is the question that comes to mind after reading Lisa Richardson’s article. In attempt to be humorous, one can lose the traits of neutrality and objectivity that are crucial to academic work. The website chosen for analysis is http://opinion.latimes.com/opinionla/2009/10/glenn-beck-hilarity.html and it was visited on the 24th of October 2013. It was particularly interesting because it focuses on one of the most controversial but continual aspects of US history; slavery. Not only is this piece deficient in terms of historical evidence, it largely focuses on the opinions of a media personality. Therefore, it is an unsuitable website for learning history because it prioritizes political shaming over historical accuracy. Website analysis Instead of dwelling on historical information first, the author starts with someone’s untruths and then uses some historical events to back them. This article mocks media personality, Glenn Beck, by a sserting that he was trying to make a spin on a historical issue that was known to all. According to the author, Glenn Beck alluded to the fact that liberals in the 19th century were slave supporters. She then adds that this was totally unfounded because conservatives were slave-owners. They had much to lose from the abolition of this practice, so they fought against the liberals in order to have their way. From the spin on this topic, one can deduce that the writer’s agenda is to portray conservatives as irrational people. The target audience also consists of liberals who would find an attack against conservatives quite palatable. This site, which is known as Opinion L.A. belongs to a number of bloggers with liberal leanings. If the writer of the piece was interested in disseminating historical truths, she would have started with facts and then alluded to someone’s rant about the same. Useful information is hard to find and buried in a plethora of attacks, but it stil l exists. As a historian, one would still find something useful in the site. The story highlights the political disagreements that were sparked by debates on slavery. It sheds light on why the institution was able to persist for a relatively long time. Consensus on the matter was simply not forthcoming. At least the website mentions the relationships between the state and its constituents especially when it wanted to restrict certain practices. This website thus highlights the nature of controversies that stemmed from political disagreements. It is possible to know these facts because a civil war arose from the differences. However, one would require a thorough knowledge of the events in American history to discovery these hidden truths. This article is slanted on one side to make it appear as though democrats were the progressive thinkers of their time. A number of persons disagree with this view because they believe that democrats only acquired a progressive incline after the 1960 s when it was necessary to do so. Furthermore, the author is bent on labeling historians either as liberal or conservatives. The following statement illustrates one of the assumptions made by the writer: â€Å"Conservatives, of course, were slave-owners and liberals were not. Conservatives in the 19th century believed in the tyranny of state government and liberals did not.   Everyone with a shred of understanding about American history knows that. We had a whole war over it.† (Richardson, 2009) In the matter of slavery, this dichotomy does not work well because several individuals had liberal views but did not support slavery. Conversely religious activists fought for abolition of slave trade even when most of their views were regarded as conservative. It is for this reasons that one would question the comments of the writer. She seems too intent on painting one side of the political divide as a change agent and the other as a forestaller. It would have been better for the writer to focus on events as they were rather than

Project Management Principles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5500 words

Project Management Principles - Essay Example A typical project goes through a cycle. The standard cycle involves four phases – initiation, planning, execution and closure. In most cases changes are required to the initial plan and this involves a process of adaptation (See diagram of a six phase cycle in Appendix 2). The cycle starts with the initiation of the project during which time the scope and objectives of the project are determined. The Planning stage sets out the human resource plan, the financing plan, the communication plan, the risk management plan. After all the activities are determined and a schedule is prepared the project is implemented. If monitoring indicates that things are not going as planned then project manager needs to adapt, adjust the plan and implement the changes. The results are then checked against the project plan and if every thing is satisfactory and the objectives have been achieved then the project can be closed (RDI 2009). 1.1 Analysis of project phases This project involves the redesign of office space to accommodate new members of staff. Wysocki (2009) indicates that effective project management is not the product of a fixed set of steps to be followed in every project. However, effective project management requires that projects go through a series of steps that are clearly defined (RDI 2009). According to PM4DEV (2007) projects operate as part of a system and they involve a high level of uncertainty. Project phases are divisions within a project where additional controls are needed to effectively manage the completion of a major deliverable (PMI 2008, p. 18). By dividing the projects in several phases the project manager is able to integrate both internal and external factors in the planning process. It allows for proper control of the project and ensures that each phase is completed before moving to the next. The five major phases of a project are: identification of needs; formation of objectives and project definition; detaile d planning and scheduling; project activity management; and closure and feedback (RDI 2009). 1.1.1 Identification of n

Hewlett-Packard Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hewlett-Packard - Research Paper Example The company intends to follow an evolutionary trend for growth under the guidance of Apotheker, primarily focusing on the digital entertainment technology, portability and the expected increase in mobile computing. The new CEO has stressed upon the increasing awareness within the company about sustainability of operations and compliance of its products with the current stress on keeping the earth green and pollution free. The company intends and has already taken steps to develop product lines in coherence with these objectives. Apotheker intends to stabilize and retain the reputation of HP as the world’s largest technology company after the recent setbacks when the Directors’ had to sack the previous CEO Mark Hurd on disciplinary grounds and a downward slump in HP’s performance in the First Quarter of the year 2011 (Worthen & Sherr, 2011). Apotheker intends to promote ‘cloud computing’ from its own resources as well as in collaboration with other ma jor players’ in the field.

Value Chain Essay Example for Free

Value Chain Essay Value chain management has become more and more important in industry in past decades. This report provides an insight view of value chain in automotive industry and then examine leadership role of engineer in value chain management. Furthermore, the report will analyse why engineer is so important in management of value chain. Analysis of value chain Automotive industry plays an important pillar role in the economic development of all countries. This is because the development of automotive industry will definitely drive development of new technology, development of relative industry sectors and increasing revenue of the country. In this day and age, value chain management is becoming more and more important in automotive industry to improve their competitiveness. As value chain management is crucial part of automotive industry, how to improve the efficiancy of value chain is the key target. The value chain is aim to deliver valuable products to customer, therefore, the components involved in value chain need to integrate with others effectively to achieve high value products with less cost. One of the components is supply chain, the supply chain in motor vehicle industry is not only the process which tramsform raw materials, parts into a finished vehicle, it also include financing, product developing, transporting, distributing to customer. Thus, many small firms may involved in the supply chain to produce a product. These organizations should cooperate closely and coordinate material, information effectively to speeding up flows in supply chain (Stadtler and Kilger, 2008). Thereby, improving competitveness of the firm. Demand chain is the other part of value chain. Demand chain in motor vehicle industry is a process which company can anticipate customer’s demand in the vehicle market. For instance, there is a research that shows a increasingly number of young people prefer SUV cars to sedan cars, as a result, almost every car manufactors introduce fangle SUV cars to attract customers buying their cars. Advertising can be seen everywhere in order to improve the demand of vehicle market. Consequently, the purpose of demand chain is to drive and sustain customer’s demand. Marketing and sales is a way to sustain customer’s demand (Bacheldor, 2003). However, product is the most important factor to satisfying customers’need. The product of the automotive industry is not produced by engineer without a plan, a marketing plan is necessary prior to launch a new product. The product strategy shoud be developed clearly and relisticly with the analysis of intended market, otherwise, the product may unattract to customer and the company may suffer a great of lost. Operations is all the business activities of the company, including making products and delivering to meet the goal of company. In order to run the business more effectively, managers will make a detailed operations strategy to attain their goal. A framework is setted to carry out functions of organization. Leadership Role of engineer in value chain management The concept of how to sustain the value chain has become a hot topic within managers. One of effective way is to apply supply chain management, which is define as combine supply chain, material and imformation for the purpose of satisfying customer’s need to create net value and improve competitiveness. According to Ayers (2001), he states that actions of supply chain management include planning, maintenance, responding to external changes and supply chain processes activities to fulfill consumer’s needs. First, in supply chain planning, engineers focus on the control of cost and satisfaction of customers’ demand, they play as a customer interface role to ensure value chain system are customer friendly and reduce cost. Secondly, it is obivous that engineers is a maintenance role in making sure all designed system meets the specified requirements. Thirdly, they also good at respond to risk, engineers are specialists in risk management, they asess risk and control risk to minimize the loss. Lastly, engineers play vital role in value chain, especially in fulfil constomer’s demand kown as requirements role, they design products based on the requirements of consumers, considering and making sure function of all system. Overall, engineers are significantly contribute to value creation, value mantainence and guarantee of efficiency and effectiveness, which are the characteristics of a leader (Hick et al. 1999). Benefits of using an engineer in value chain management Engineers are the core of value chain management, this is because they create and add value to the value chain. Firstly, engineers are creative, which greatly contributes to innovate and invent new products. They have professional skills to deal with complex problem and able to develop the products of what customer’s expect. Secondly, they have responsibilities in restricting cost, making plan and strategy and guiding the process of value chain (Simchi-Levi et al. 2008). They so focus on addding value to value chain that by taking these actions can greatly improve company’s competitiveness and increase profitability of company. Lastly, engineers are required in mantaining the normal operation of value chain process and improving efficiency by coordinate participants. Conclusion his report analyzes the value chain in automotive industry and examines the leadership role in management of value chain. Engineers have the characteristic of value creation, value mantainence and guarantee of efficiency and effectiveness which determined them leadership role in value chain management. Benefits of using an engineer like possess of professional skills, guiding operation process and improving efficiency are very attractive to companies. Therefore, it is recommended that engineers used as managers in value chain management.

Relationship Between Management Theory and Practice

Relationship Between Management Theory and Practice In this answer the relationship in between management theory practice is clearly defined, starting with defining the meaning of management theory, later on the relation in between the two is highlighted followed by a critical review conclusion. WHAT IS MANAGEMENT THEORY? Management theory is a lens that allows people to interpret modes of management, to identify a particular set of problems and to seek a variety of solutions to those problems. Management practices in different organisations depend on the theories that are applied either explicitly or implicitly (Soriano, 2009). RELATION IN BETWEEN MANAGEMENT THEORY PRACTICE Every living practioner is prisoner to the ideas of a dead theorist(Mullins, 2007, p.40). Management theory is a critical element that helps in the production of knowledge, bringing transparency, accountability and accessibility to the research practice (Brownlie, 2007). Theories are perspectives with which people try make sense of their experiences. The relation between theory practice is very important as without theoretical knowledge it is impossible to put the skills into practice and make the right decisions. Theory gives deep understanding and allows manager to view the problems from different perspectives which leads to decision-making practice. In relation to the problems faced by organisations today, without understanding the basics of it, without knowing the case in depth, it becomes difficult to come to the right decision and solve the problem which causes the delays in decisions results(Stoner et. al. 1995, pp. 31-2). Thus, Six Sigma a system ofÂÂ  practices ev olving from best management theories was developed by Motorola in the 1980s to improve processes by eliminating defects (Pande, 2007). It is therefore very important for people leading the organisations to have a good theoretical knowledge. CRITICAL REVIEW As per a report in The Sunday Times (2009), in the last two decades, management theory, once rejected in Britain by both unions and management, has been deliberately implied on almost every aspect of commercial and public life (Billen, 2009). This act of blindly implying theories into practice is incorrect moreover certain beneficial management practices are the ones not mentioned in management theories. As stated by Gary Hamel in The Future of Management, several leading executives-including Sergey Brin and Larry Page (the Google Guys) and John Mackey of Whole Foods Market, never went to business school had no knowledge of management theories, still their management practices were successful (The Econmist, 2007). In most of the organisations there appears a gap between theory and practice of management, this problem is attributed to converting research knowledge into practice to solve this researchers propose a method of engaged scholarship in which researchers and practitioners coproduce knowledge that can advance theory and practice in a given domain (Ven et. al, 2006). CONCLUSION In managing, as in any other field, unless practitioners try to learn by trial and error method, there is no place they can turn for meaningful guidance other than the knowledge underlying their practice; this knowledge is theory. Managers who attempt to manage without management theory must put their trust to luck, intuition, or their experience in the past. A management who makes serious attempts to translate management theory into practice is bound to increase productivity more than a management which chooses to use the fire brigade or trial and error approach (Weirich, 2004). Q:Explain the main difficulties in studying personalities; how is this of importance to organisations? A: INTRODUCTION: In this answer, the difficulties in studying personalities are highlighted, by defining the meaning of personalities mentioning the reasons for the difficulties. Later on, the importance of understanding personalities to organisations is mentioned followed by a conclusion. MEANING OF PERSONALITY: As per Websters Dictionary Personality is derived from the latin word persona, which means mask as in mask worn by actors on stage or role as in ones role in life, so personality is essential character of a person (David Knights and Hugh Willmott, 2007, p.80). Difficulties in Studying Personalities:Â   No two individuals have exactly the same personalities, as stated in The New York Times (2009) It is said that parents of one child believe that upbringing determines personality, but parents with two children believe in genetic tendencies. The evidence points to something more complex: genetic predispositions interact with circumstances to produce unique individuals (Aamodt Wang, 2009). So, studying personalities is a complex task as the techniques that are used to collect group data is questionable and the outcome that comes from it is inappropriate in understanding personalities because the richness and depth of an individuals personality cannot be revealed in superficial pen and papers questionnaires. The personality cannot be understood outside an individuals social context and has to be studied in the light of his/her own perceptions of the world. Moreover, the categories defined by psychologists to study personalities are quite narrow in depth and scope. We expect individuals behaviour to be consistent or stable, however it might not be true everytime, for e.g if a person has taken drugs or is under great stress he will not behave as per his personality traits (Mullins, 2004). Importance To Organisations: Those who manage or even aspire to manage organisations a vital part of their role is understanding human behaviour and psychology (Rollinson, 2005).Within the mainstream thinking and practice of management personality is seen as one of the most basic and fundamental features of an organisation (David Knights and hugh willmott, 2007, p.79). The study the personalities can help organisations in solving real problems that happen at the place of work. By using personality psychological research findings the organisations can hire better employees, decrease absenteeism, increase job satisfaction solve many other organisational problems related to work. Understanding of personality is required in various organizational processes for e.g. Selection Placement. As per Africa News (2005) personality is the key element organisations need to assess when recruiting people. Apart from such processes understanding personalities can help organisations in redesigning jobs to make them more meaning ful and satisfying to the employees which in turn will lead to healthy and productive workforce. An organisation should recognise and try to improve employees personality and talent so that certain positive and encouraging traits can be developed in them which would lead to better work atmosphere and attainment of common aims and goals (Paul M. Muchinsky, 2001). CONCLUSION It can thus be concluded that personality is a major factor that determines the success or failure of the individual but understanding personality is a complex process, so the organisations should be careful in selecting its employees by understanding their personalities should also try bring positive changes to their personalities for organisational success. Q: In what ways can an understanding of motivation theory contribute to successful organizational working? Illustrate your key arguments with organizationally based examples. A : INTRODUCTION In this answer, the importance of understanding motivation theories for organisations is mentioned, with the help of surveys, organizationally based examples press releases. In the beginning the different motivation theories are described in brief, followed by explanation of reasons for understanding them. WHAT IS MOTIVATION WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT MOTIVATION THEORIES? The term motivation derived from the Latin word movere, meaning to move (Kretiner, 1998). As per Robbins (1993) motivation is the willingness to put high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned being the efforts should satisfy some individual need (Ramlall, 2004). The first theory of motivation was developed by FW Taylors was called Scientific Management Theory. Taylor believed money was the only motivator and that there should be a carrot and stick approach to motivate people. Those who worked hard should be rewarded, but those who didnt, penalties should be imposed. Other theorists proposed that this was not always the way to get the best out of people (The Times 100, 2010,Motivation how Egg unleashes the power of people). So there other motivation theories got evolved namely Content theories attempt to explain those specific things that actually motivate the individual at work Process theories that attempt to identify the relationship among the variables that make up motivation (Mullins, 2007). CONTENT THEORIES 1) Needs theories: Maslows hierarchy of needs theory identifies five major basic needs: a) physiological b) safety c) love/affiliation d) esteem e) self-actualization. This theory provided organisations ways of motivating employees by devising programs aimed at satisfying unmet needs (Ramlall, 2004). Champagne McAfee (1989), cited ways for organisations to meet the needs of their employees:-Physiological: Vending machines, Drinking fountains; Safety: retirement benefits, solving grievances, Rest periods; Affiliation: creating team spirit, using periodic praise; Esteem: Encouraging participation, giving training; Self-actualization: Encouraging creativity, providing challenges. LIMITATION: The level and type of employees need may vary, fulfilling some needs might be really costly(Ramlall,2004). 2) Herzbergs two-factor theory: As per Herzberg (1968) financial rewards do not always satisfy employees, as proposed by Taylor. This theory assumes that the absence of hygiene factors like salary, security, working conditions leads to demotivation amongst the employees whereas motivators like achievement, recognition, responsibility, nature of work leads to motivation (Quader Quader, 2008). This theory teaches organisation that for an employee to be motivated, his job must be fully enriched where he has the opportunity for achievement and recognition (Ramlall, 2004). LIMITATION: This theory can only be applied to manual workers the theory is methodologically bound (Mullins, 2007). 3) McClellands Achievement motivation theory: McClellands work originated from the relationship between hunger needs and the extent to which imagery of food dominated thought processes. McClelland saw the achievement need as the most critical need for the countrys economic growth and success. LIMITATION: The theory is generalised however, different people have different achievement needs (Mullins, 2007). PROCESS THEORIES: 1) Equity theory: Equity theory states that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards they receive for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive. If they find any imbalance, tension is created people can do many things to remove this inequity. Therefore organizations must develop reward systems that are fair and equitable for all the employees (Ramlall, 2004). LIMITATION: It fails to specify what will people do to reduce the inequity/tension (Muchinsky, 2003). 2) Attribution theory: This theory suggests that behaviour is determined by a combination of perceived internal forces (skills, ability) and external forces(policies, weather) (Mullins, 2007). LIMITATION: If an employee performs well but the manager thinks this was due to luck, the appropriate recognition/reward may not be given employee will get demotivated. 3) Expectancy theory: As per this theory people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes (Kreitner Kinicki, 1999, p.227). This theory states that the task itself is key to employee motivation so organisations should follow job enrichment and job rotation to increase motivation. LIMITATION: Expectancy models are not always easy to understand, or apply in actual management (Mullins, 2007). 4) Goal-setting theory : It says individuals are motivated by specific difficult goals their behaviour revolves around the set goal (Gordon, 1996, p145). It helps organisations in gaining improved results as employees set specific goals directly related to their work (Mullins, 2007). LIMITATION : If goals are set at a very high level to achieve, performance suffers, especially over a longer period(Mullins,2007). LITERATURE REVIEW: In the past theories of motivation a lot of importance was given to recognition factor of motivation the only dependent variables were job satisfaction performance. Later on, Significant advances were made in understanding how culture, characteristics of the job, and the person-organization fit influenced motivation. Earlier, motivation was restricted to research findings of North Americans. There were clashes amongst theorists that existed throughout much of the twentieth century hence much of the energy was spent on destruction of theory rather than theory construction (Latham Pinder, 2005). WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THEORIES MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES? Organisational investments in employee motivation create obligations on the employees to reciprocate in positive ways, which, in turn, result in better organisational performance (Lee Bruvold, 2003). Moreover, motivation theory can go a long way towards helping us understand why people behave in the way they do. Armed with such knowledge, managers should be better placed to direct employee behaviour for the good of the organisation (Hannagan, 2005, pp. 350-351). As stated by Amer Zureikat, regional Manager, Bayt.com. in United Arab Emirates (2009), Organisations the world over are realising that successfully motivating staff on an ongoing basis is a fundamental element in building good rapport among staff, keeping staff loyal to the company and most of all maintaining optimal productivity levels of employees. This becomes even more crucial during these times of economic crisis, because news of job losses and an unstable future may serve to de-motivate employees significantly. MOTIVATION REDUCES ABSENTEEISM It is mentioned in The Irish Times that up to 50 to 80 per cent of an organisations total expenditure is on employees, even average absence levels can represent a serious expense in terms of reduced productivity and can reduce employee retention because of over-stretched staff. An initiative to lower absenteeism makes financial sense to the organisation. This can be done only if the motivation theories are understood put into practice (Madden, 2008). MOTIVATION IMPROVES PRODUCTIVITY PERFORMANCE: Georgopoulos et al.(1957) Porter Lawler (1967) found that employees for whom money was a motivator, performed better if more money was offered to them (Edwin A. Locke, 1970). West and Patterson suggest Where the level of satisfaction is generally high employees may be more motivated to engage in pro-social behaviours and make extra effort to help other departments and functions. Over thousands of instances of helping and motivating the employees show that it increases productivity and performance (Robin Fincham Peter Rhodes, 2005, p.232). MOTIVATION IMPROVES TEAMWORK CO-ORDINATION Certain gain-sharing programs, such as the Scanlon Plan, Improshare, or Rucker Plan, helps workers to get a share in productivity improvements. Such programs result in increased coordination, teamwork and knowledge sharing. They also contribute to better attainment of social needs, increased acceptance of change of technology and new methods. It causes more efficient management and planning, reduction of overtime for workers, increase in creativity and implementation of new ideas and more flexible labour and management relationship (Judith R Gordon, 1996). CASE STUDY BLACK DECKER: A new program Everyone Counts based on employees social self esteem needs as per the needs motivation theories was implemented at Black and Deckers Household Products division in Shelton. Everyone Counts, an employee incentive campaign, replaced the suggestion box and allowed teams of employees to provide cost saving, cost analysis and implementation suggestions. Thirty-nine teams were allowed to submit five ideas each in twelve weeks. One such idea is estimated to save the company over seven hundred dollars by substituting a new material in one of the product lines. Everyone counts also improved communications with upper management, increased employee involvement and allowed more centralisation of the employee work environment (Harris Kliener,1993). Examples to show the Link of Motivation with Organisational Success: American Express introduced an incentive plan for 10,000 employees in the consumer-lending and consumer card groups after a one year pilot program, during which 98 percent of 1,500 employees received bonuses of 4 percent of their salaries. The plan resulted in an increase in customer satisfaction, employee productivity and shareholder gains (Judith R.Gordon, 1996). Royal Bank of Scotland: RBS provides world-class employment package for every employee adopts an attitude that motivates its staff in both financial and personal ways. This helps RBS to compete for the best people and attract them to its business has lead to RBS being rated as one of the best employers in the world. Thus following motivation theories has proved beneficicial for RBS (The Times 100, motivating through total reward). CASE STUDY OF HONEYWELL: Honeywells Electro Optics Division was in serious financial trouble because of low employee morale. In order to motivate their employees they turned to the Boston office of Bernard Hodes for a motivational programme. Posters of the five great performers with their chosen quote were made and placed in the hallways. The five great performers were instant celebrities and everyone wanted to be one. It enhanced employees performance by the use of motivation. In six months Honeywell was out of the financial trouble (Harris Kliener, 1993). There are several examples to show importance of motivation, Some of the better known examples include the Digital Equipment Corporation plants at Enfield in America (Perry, 1984) and Ayr in Scotland (Buchanan McCalman, 1989). In Britain, empowered self-managing teams can also be found in The Body Shop, Unipart, Frizzell Financial Services, Ciba UK and in the Harvester Restaurant in Dulwich (Pickard, 1993).Many American companies have adopted motivating and team working methods, like Shenandoah Life Insurance, Harley-Davidson, Compaq, Cummins Engine Company, Procter Gamble, and General Motors (Hoerr et al., 1986; Hoerr, 1989; Peters, 1987) In most of these companies role of traditional first line supervisor was changed and in others they have been replaced by people who were more motivating (David Buchanan Andrzej Huczynski, 1997, p.96). CONCLUSION: Thus, with the different examples shown it can be concluded that by understanding the importance of motivation organisations can prosper, it can also be said that apart from money there are other motivators of great importance as well, like job security, challenging tasks and working together with colleagues in a good working environment. It has been seen that great organisations are the ones in which the employees are motivated to bring out the best in them. It is therefore very important for the organisations to understand that the employees are an organisations most precious asset anything that can be done to increase their capability should be done so that the returns come to the organisation.

The Differences Between Weather And Climate Environmental Sciences Essay

The Differences Between Weather And Climate Environmental Sciences Essay Weather is the conditions right here, right now. Look out of the window and you will see what the weather is like today. It might be sunny, hot, windy or cloudy, raining or snowing. The weather takes into account the temperature, precipitation, humidity and atmospheric pressure, of the part of atmosphere (air) closest to the surface of the earth. The weather is constantly changing as temperature and humidity change in the atmosphere. Landmasses, such as the British Isles, experience constantly changing weather conditions. Climate is the average weather conditions temperature, pressure, precipitation and humidity expected for a certain place. Climate is based on the average weather experienced over 30 years or more. Climate refers to what is expected to happen in the atmosphere rather than the actual conditions. So it is possible for the weather today to be different from that suggested by the climate. Climatic conditions in an area can be affected by the landscape, relief and activities (human and natural). Climate can alter over time and space. Within a climatic region, the climate may vary from place to place, e.g. top of hill, sunny side of hill, shaded side of hill and bottom of the hill. These areas with their small variations are called microclimates. The science of monitoring and studying the atmosphere and predicting its weather and climate is called meteorology . People who study the weather and climate are known as meteorologists. You will need to know and understand the different factors that affect weather conditions in a specific time and location. These factors include: temperature and sunshine humidity and precipitation time of day or year local geography pressure and winds, and cloud formations Temperature, sunshine, time and geography Temperature is how hot or cold the atmosphere is ie, how many degrees Celsius (centigrade) it is above or below freezing (0Â °C). Temperature is a very important factor in determining the weather, because it influences or controls other elements of the weather, such as precipitation, humidity, clouds and atmospheric pressure. Temperature is affected by factors such as sunshine, time, geography and wind. 1. Sunshine The amount of sunshine and strength of the sun influences the temperature of a place. The number of hours per day that the sun shines in a particular location is known as sunshine hours. The number of sunshine hours in a location is determined by the hours of daylight, and how many of these hours are cloud-free. Tourists and people who work in tourism are interested in the number of sunshine hours a location has. 2. Time The temperature of the atmosphere is affected by the time of day, because of the earths daily spinning on its axis. As it spins, different parts of it get closer to the sun, so receiving more light and warmth. Atmospheric temperature is also affected by the time of year. The earth takes a year to revolve around the sun, and as it revolves different parts of it get closer or further away from the sun. It is this which creates different seasonal climates which vary according to the time of year. At the equator the hours of daylight and the seasons vary the least. The further away from the equator you go, the greater the fluctuations through the year. 3. Local geography The following geographical factors affect temperatures: Latitude is the distance of a location from the equator. The hottest temperatures are found at the equator. This is because the sun shines directly on it for more hours during the year than anywhere else. As you move further away from the equator towards the polar regions, less and less sun is received during the year and the climates become colder and colder. Altitude is the height above sea level or the height above the earths surface. The higher the altitude, the lower the temperature will be. This is because the temperature of air depends on its density. Air is lighter the higher up the hill you go. Winds also tend to be stronger near the top of a hill, adding to the wind-chill factor (see winds below). On average for every 1,000 metres higher you go the temperature will fall about 6.5 Â °C. Aspect is the direction that something is facing. This is important because slopes facing the equator will be warmer. This is why farmers in the northern hemisphere, for example Norway, favour south-facing slopes for growing crops and farmers in the southern hemisphere favour north-facing slopes. Proximity to the sea affects the temperature of a place because the sea temperature changes slower than land temperature. So the sea will keep coastal areas warmer than inland area during the winter and cooler than inland areas during the summer. This is why islands, such as UK, have more moderate (less severe) climates than countries on continents (such as Germany). Sea temperature. Different seas are of different temperatures, so it is possible for islands to be warmer on one side than the other. The west coast of Norway is heated up by the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream or North Atlantic Drift. Currents exist in all the oceans. Currents are governed by the prevailing winds passing over them. The main ocean currents flow roughly in a similar pattern, anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere and clockwise in the northern hemisphere. Currents that move water from tropical areas towards the poles (North Atlantic Drift starts in the Gulf of Mexico) are known as warm currents. Those currents moving from northern (or southern) colder seas, nearer the poles towards the equator are known as cool currents, an example is the Canaries current. Humidity Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. A high humidity means there is a lot of water vapour, and a low humidity means a little. Air can only hold a certain amount of water before condensation occurs. Condensation will lead to precipitation in the form of dew or, if its very cold, frost. If condensation occurs higher in the atmosphere (as air is rising) it will form into clouds. Humidity is measured as a percentage, relative to the saturation point where the air can hold no more water vapour (i.e. 100 percent humidity). The humidity level varies with temperature. The warmer air is, the more moisture the air can hold as vapour. The colder the air is, the less moisture the air can hold. So on a hot day it can be more humid, than on a cold day. So in the hottest place, the equator, it can be a lot more humid than in the UK. So when air rises and begins to cool, it gradually loses its ability to hold water. The point when it becomes too cold for the air to maintain its water level is called the dew point. This is when condensation occurs. Humidity in tropical rainforests can be VERY high! Precipitation and the water cycle Precipitation is the term given to moisture that falls from the air to the ground. Precipitation includes snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog, mist and rain. In the UK, the most common form of precipitation is rain. The amount of water held between the earth, seas and the atmosphere is constant. There is a continual flow of water between the earth, sea and atmosphere called the water cycle. The type of precipitation experienced in a location is influenced by a number of factors including temperature and atmospheric pressure. Types of rainfall There are three main types of rainfall convectional rainfall, frontal rainfall and relief rainfall. 1. Convectional rainfall may occur in Britain in the summer, after a long hot day, but is most commonly found in places with warmer climates. The ground or water in lakes or seas is warmed by the sun, throughout the day. The air above the land becomes heated. This makes the air less dense, so it rises. As the air rises it cools. Cool air can not hold as much water vapour as warmer air, when the air becomes too cold for the amount of water it holds condensation occurs. The point where this occurs is called the dew point. These drops of condensation form into clouds, gradually becoming tall thunderstorm clouds, called cumulonimbus. When these clouds become too big, containing too much water gravity forces them to release the water in a huge downpour. 2. Frontal rainfall is more common in the UK than convectional rainfall. Frontal rainfall gets its name because it occurs when two air masses of warm and cold air meet, causing a front. When they meet, the less dense, light warm air is forced to rise above the denser, heavier cold air. As the warm air is forced upwards it cools. When air rises above the dew point, when it can no longer hold all its water, the water starts to condense and form clouds. Precipitation falls over a wide area. 3. Relief rainfall or orographic rainfall is common in the west of Norway. The prevailing winds blow moist air from the Atlantic Ocean and North Sea to the west of Norway onshore. As the air hits higher land, such as the hills and mountains in Vestlandet and the north-west of Norway, the air is forced to rise. When air rises above the dew point, it can no longer hold all its water, which starts to condense and form clouds. This type of rainfall is called relief because it is affected by the lie; or orographic because it is affected by mountains. Cloud types Clouds form because air cools as it rises and when it cools, the amount of water vapour it can hold reduces. When it reaches its dew point, the water vapour held within the air condenses, into droplets. These droplets group together as clouds. There are many different types of cloud. Clouds are given different names, depending on their height, size and shape. The main terms used to describe clouds are as follows: Cirrus wispy shaped Cumulus heaped or piled up Stratus in layers Nimbus contains rain Cirro high cloud Alto medium-level cloud High-level clouds start at above 5000m. Clouds at this level usually contain ice, rather than water. The main clouds here are: cirrus (white, wispy clouds), cirrocumulus (separate, white, heaped clouds, that look small because they are so high) cirrostratus (white, wispy clouds that you can see the sun quite clearly through). Medium-level clouds start at between 2,000m and 5,000m above the earth. Clouds at this level usually contain ice and water droplets. The main clouds here are: altostratus (medium-to-high level, white-grey, thin layers of cloud through which the sun can be faintly seen) altocumulus (collection of white, heaped clouds) nimbostratus (low-medium level, dark, thick, feature-less clouds, that threatens rain or snow). Low-level clouds start below 2,000m above the earth. Clouds at this level are usually just carrying water. The main clouds here are: stratocumulus (low, white and grey clouds, that are thick at bottom, heaped on top) stratus (extensive low-level blanket of dull, grey sky, that blocks out the sun, but doesnt necessarily mean rain) cumulus (big low, white, fluffy, heaped) cumulonimbus (starting low these clouds will extend very high, sometime bringing thunderstorms, often rain or snow). Atmospheric pressure and wind Atmospheric pressure (or air pressure) is the weight of air resting on the earths surface. Pressure is shown on a weather map, often called a synoptic map, with lines called isobars. Low pressure occurs when air becomes warmer. The air molecules expand, become lighter and it rises. The pressure numbers on the isobars will be decreasing as it approaches the low pressure zone. High pressure occurs when air becomes colder. The air molecules contract, become denser, heavier and sink towards the earth. The pressure numbers on the isobars will be increasing as it approaches the high pressure zone. What is wind? Wind is the movement of air masses from high pressure areas (highs) to low pressure areas (lows). The effect of this movement of air is to rebalance the pressure in the atmosphere. Part of a synoptic chart, showing isobars and wind direction Note that: the greater the difference between the high and the low pressure, the greater the wind speed will be, and the closer together the isobars are on the weather map, the stronger the winds will be. Wind and temperature The place where the air mass is coming from will determine whether it brings warmer or colder temperatures. In Britain the prevailing wind comes off the ocean from the south west. In winter this will bring warmer temperatures, as the sea cools down slower than the land. In summer it will bring cooler temperatures for the same reason. Winds can also make the temperature feel cooler than it really is. This is called the wind-chill factor. Higher winds will remove the warmer air around a human (for example) more quickly, so the body will cool more quickly than usual. Fronts Fronts occur where two different air masses meet. 1. Warm fronts exist when warm air is rising over a mass of cold air. As the air lifts into regions of lower pressure; it expands, cools and condenses the water vapour as wide, flat sheets of cloud. Warm fronts are shown on synoptic charts by a solid line with semicircles pointing towards the colder air and in the direction of movement. On coloured weather maps, a warm front is drawn with a solid red line with red semicircles. 2. Cold fronts are usually associated with depressions. A cold front is the transition zone where a cold air mass is replacing the warmer air mass. The cold air is following the warm air, and is gradually moving underneath the warmer air. As the warm air is pushed upwards it will rain heavily. Often more rain will fall in a few minutes as the cold front passes than during the whole passage of a warm front. As the cold front passes, the clouds roll by and you may notice that the air temperature is cooler. Cold fronts are shown on synoptic (weather) charts by a solid line with triangles along the front pointing towards the warmer air and in the direction of movement. On coloured weather maps, a cold front is drawn with a solid blue line with blue triangles. 3. Occluded fronts occur at the point where a cold front takes over a warm front or vice versa. If a cold front undercuts a warm front it is known as a cold occlusion, if the cold front rises over the warm front it is called a warm occlusion. All occluded fronts bring changeable weather conditions. On a synoptic chart occluded fronts are represented by semi-circles and triangles positioned next to each other, the triangles in blue, the semicircles in red, or both are purple (mixing both red and blue colours together). Global weather patterns At a global level, there are patterns of wind and pressure. There are huge bands of high and low pressure around the earth. These bands run parallel with the equator. There is a low pressure band over the equator (at 0Â ° latitude) and two more low pressure bands one bordering the cold region around the Arctic (at a latitude of 60Â ° North) and another bordering the Antarctic (at a latitude of 60Â ° South). In between there are two high pressure bands, one in each hemisphere found around a latitude of 30Â °North and 30Â °South, to the north of the Tropic of Cancer and to the south of Tropic of Capricorn. Air is constantly moving from high pressure areas to low pressure areas. This movement of air produces prevailing winds, called trade winds as they used to help trading ships sail around the world. The winds are strongest in between the zones of high and low pressure, and are weak and changeable around the bands themselves. Sailors call the lack winds around the equator the doldrums. The trade winds are also influenced by the movement of the earth. This means that instead of going due north or due south, they are blown slightly off course. In the northern hemisphere winds are blown to the right. In the southern hemisphere they are blown to the left. This is why the prevailing wind in the UK comes from the south west. These prevailing winds also influence the directions that the great currents move in the oceans. The animation shows the main areas of high and low pressure on the globe, and winds blowing (slightly off course) from high to low pressure bands. Atmospheric circulation At the area around the equator the weather is always very hot, causing hot air to rise, taking with it evaporated water as water vapour. This rising air causes the low pressure band around the equator and is the engine of global wind patterns: As the warm air rises, it cools until it hits the dew point, when it releases the water vapour, creating clouds and tropical rain. The low pressure sucks in cool air from either side of the equator. As this air is warmed, it too rises. As it does so it pushes the cooler, dryer air (much of its water has now been lost as rain) above it away to the north and south of the equator. This dry air heading north sinks back to the ground to the north of the Tropic of Cancer, while the dry air heading south sinks to ground south of the Tropic of Capricorn. This sinking air helps to create high pressure zones. The sinking, dry air contributes to a much drier climate to the north and south of the tropics creating the desert and savannah biomes typical of this zone. These circulating currents of air along the surface of the earth from the high pressure zone to the equator, then up into the atmosphere, then horizontally through the atmosphere, and finally back down to the ground in the high pressure zone are called Hadley cells.

Aphra Behns Poem To the Fair Clarinda Essay -- Aphra Behn Fair Clarin

Aphra Behn's Poem "To the Fair Clarinda" In her poem â€Å"To the fair Clarinda,† Aphra Behn writes of a companionship between the speaker and Clarinda. This paper will attempt to prove that Clarinda is a hermaphrodite instead of a woman as is popularly believed, thus completely changing the meaning of the poem. In the first few lines, the speaker decides to call Clarinda â€Å"Lovely Charming Youth† (4) instead of â€Å"Fair lovely Maid† (1). The speaker says that the name will â€Å"lessen my constraint† (6). This could refer to the sexual feelings that are holding her back because of the womanly part of Clarinda. â€Å"And without Blushes I the Youth persue† (7) tells how the speaker is not embarrassed to desire Clarinda now that she is referred to as a Youth. Farther into the first stanza, the speaker talks about how the love between her and Clarinda is not wrong because Clarinda is perceived by the rest of the world to be only a woman, and two women in a friendly, romantic relationship was perfectly normal at this time. The speaker says that Clarinda was born as a hermaph...

Elizabeth Gaskell’s Mary Barton and the Industrial Novel Essay examples

Elizabeth Gaskell’s Mary Barton and the Industrial Novel Elizabeth Gaskell’s Mary Barton belongs to a small, short-lived form of Victorian literature called the industrial novel. The primary authors of this genre—Charles Kingsley, Frances Trollope, Charlotte Brontà «, Benjamin Disraeli, Charles Dickens, and Elizabeth Gaskell—all were, what Herbert Sussman describes, as primarily middle-class authors writing for middle class readers in a rapidly changing world, where both author and reader struggled to comprehend their transforming society. The English people new not whether to accept this newly industrialized world as a necessary result of capitalism, or reject it for its inherent inhumanity. Writers like Gaskell portrayed the victims of this new world with sympathy, but expressed fear that the working-class would someday rise to overthrow the economic system that had treated them with such cruelty. As working conditions improved, and people became tempered to this new world, the industrial novel, with few e xceptions, ceased to exist, but we can use this genre to look back on how the industrialized world—the world in which we now live comfortably—came into being. It was just about 40 years before Elizabeth Gaskell published Mary Barton that Great Britain was primarily a rural, agricultural society. Many people grew their own food, and clothes and household materials were usually made within the home. Any specialized occupation almost always centered on the home and family, with children and parents both contributing to the family business. Three inventions, however, swiftly changed this system. The invention of the spinning mule and spinning jenny allowed mass production of woven cloth, which was ... ...oughout Europe, forced the English government to create new restrictions that outlawed child-labor, decreased working hours, increased worker safety, and implemented a host of other policies that allowed an overall improvement in living conditions for the working-class. By the end of the 19th century, the condition of the working-class was better than it had ever been, and England had survived the most rapid century of change in its history. Literary works like Mary Barton were Gaskell’s attempt to understand this period of change, and they are our best hope of fully understanding them ourselves.    Sources: Victorian Britain. Ed. Sally Mitchell. New York: Garland, 1988. â€Å"Factories,† â€Å"Factory Acts,† â€Å"Textile Industry,† â€Å"Working Hours.† A Companion to Victorian Literature. Ed. Herbert F. Tucker. Oxford: Blackwell, 1999. â€Å"Industrial† by Herbert Sussman.

Cherokee Indians Essay example -- essays research papers

The Removal of the Cherokees After England's acceptance of the terms of the peace made with France and Spain in 1763, in which France gave Louisiana to Spain, the grants formerly made to the six English colonies were considered good only to the Mississippi River. During the American Revolution and soon there after these former colonies were considered good only to the Mississippi River. During the American Revolution and soon thereafter these former colonies, now states of the Union ceded their unoccupied western lands to the government of the United States, thereby establishing the so-called public domain. Of these states, the last to cede its western lands was Georgia, which in 1802 surrendered all claim to land included in the present states of Alabama and Mississippi. This cession was made by what was known as the Georgia Compact. It also provided that the United States should at its own expense extinguish for the use of Georgia the Indian title to all lands within the state as soon as it could be done peace ably and upon reasonable terms. The purchase of Louisiana the following year placed the United States in possession of a large amount of territory It seemed reasonable, at least to the white man, that these Georgia Indians, mainly the Cherokees and Creeks, might be induced to move. One reason given by President Jefferson for this purchase was that it would make a suitable area for a new home for large tribes east of the Mississippi owning fertile lands needed for settlement by the whites. Years earlier some parties of Cherokees had crossed the Mississippi and had gone into what is now northwestern Arkansas because of the abundance of game in that region. Some of them had settled there more or less permanently, and from time to time others came out to join them. President Jefferson believed that others, or perhaps the entire tribe, might be induced to migrate to the West. The year following the treaty for the purchase of Louisiana he instructed officials of the United States government residing in the Cherokee Nation to approach the chiefs and head men of the tribe with the suggestion that the Cherokees exchange their lands in Georgia for others beyond the Mississippi. The officials reported to the President, however, that the Indians showed no sympathy with the proposal and had expressed themselves as determined to retain their lands and remain i... ...te shall be formed within the limits of another state without the consent of the latter as well as of Congress. It was asserted that the Cherokees had, in adopting a constitution, sought to form a new state within the limits of Georgia. The President promptly asked Congress to provide for an investigation of this purported Indian state and for "arresting its designs". The first Cherokee principal chief chosen under the terms of the new constitution was William Hicks, the brother of the beloved Chief Charles Hicks, who had authored the constatution but had died in January of 1827. William served but a short time, and in 1828 he was succeeded by John Ross who had been a protà ©gà © of Charles Hicks for several years. Ross was only one eighth Cherokee and the rest Scottish, but he had been born and reared among the Cherokees, to whom he was deeply devoted. Well educated, with a keep mind and rare ability as a statesman, he served almost continuously as principal chief until his death nearly forty years later. During all these years he wielded a powerful influence in the affairs of the tribe; his life story during this long period is virtually a history of the Cherokee people.

Modern and Traditional Families

Have modern families changed over the past few generations, or have people remained the same in playing each of their own leading gender role responsibilities in modern families? Some statistics show that times have now changed in spite of the man’s perception of women being stay at home mothers to their children. In addition, women can also be the breadwinner in their families rather than the father going to work. In fact, traditional families in contrast with modern families have exponentially changed as time has passed.To better understand the context of this paper I will discuss the differences and similarities between modern and traditional mothers. In my opinion I believe there are three key important responsibilities in a traditional and modern family childcare, education, and healthcare. In addition, there are various things to consider when taking care of child. For example, in the article of â€Å"The Men We Carry in our Minds,† by Russell Sanders, realizes as a young lad that hard working men like his father would have to go to work leaving his mother to stay at home and take care of young Russell.Secondly, in the story Russell talks about men and realizes that men can sometimes be overbearing and view power, competency, efficiency and achievement more importantly (Sanders, R. 1984). To cite another example, in early human history women were frowned upon to tend to their kids because of the high death rate which consequently led mothers to take the task of nurturing their children at home. (Henslin, J. M. 2009). In contrast, there are some moderate differences between modern and traditional mothers in childcare and education.Even though, we live in a modern time there has been a 16% percent increase in traditional mothers still taking care of their children. In addition, studies done in a class group together found that younger parents, as opposed to older parents, were placed in the 73 percent and placing traditional mothers at 86 perc ent. On the other hand, educating a child is equally important so the parents must decide how they will educate their children; in traditional families it is usually the mother who tends to educate the children.For example, one of the parents  may feel more strongly about supervision, discipline, and education to the child, In particular, the same cannot be said about modern parents. In fact, the reason being is because there has been a 13% percent decrease in modern mother taking care of their children because of work related problems. (See Appendix, in Figure 1). Furthermore, healthcare is another major form of responsibility for the mothers. In most households it is usually the mothers that are left behind to fend for their child throughout the first forty days of the baby being born.Moreover, this may sometimes abrupt verbal disputes, misunderstandings, and communication problems about how they want to raise their child. In Addition, one of the parents may feel stronger about the habits and health of the child. (Neuman. F, 2013). In the same way, modern mothers are taking the leading role in taking care of the child’s health. In comparison, between modern and traditional mothers people are still see a declining percentage in modern parents in regards to caregiving and healthcare. So people can conclude that there are some negative changes in modern families even though women still tend to the children.There are two more additional factors in a household that must be decided when it comes to providing for the family. This leads to the second question in the matter of who will work, and who will be in charge of balancing the books as well as paying the bills. Modern and traditional mothers have always had the capability of working, paying bills, and balance check books, but because of the plain definition and meaning of the word â€Å"gender† has some biological adherence, and has resulted in mothers being socially deemed incapable. (Henslin, J. M. 2009) Whereas today, modern mothers are now less likely to be stay at home mothers.In contrast, modern mothers today, rather than traditional, have drastically changed and can now multitask just as well as fathers. For example, mothers today can now pay bills, work, and balance check books without the help of the father. In fact, people are now seeing mothers today playing the role of the breadwinner a lot more. Lastly, families are still seeing traditional and modern mother cleaning and doing most of the household duties around the house. Modern and traditional families are now noticing a slight differential change in mother helping outside of the home.Although, there has been a small change in modern and traditional mother helping their families outside of the home. For instance, cutting the grass, or fixing the fence, and repairing things around the house. As a result, mothers today are more open to the meaning of household duties. In conclusion, to the discussion presente d in this paper people can conclude that traditional mothers in comparison with modern mothers today have a higher percentage rate in childcare, wage earnings, and household duties rather than modern mother.All in all, I truly believe that it is very important for families to have equality in order to have functional family. In addition, I still believe men should strive to do more for their other half’s. In my opinion there has been a greater significant change over the past generations in mothers, Ultimately, it seems that modern families have relatively remained the same, and traditional families have continuously increased over the past generations.

A Well-Behaved Child

A Well-Behaved Child Children are the best gift created by God. They are like wet sand, they become what others want them to become. Children needs good care attention from their elders. In order to have a well-behaved child, parents and others have to teach them good habits. There are four steps for a parent to make their child well behaved. The first thing to teach a child is about their daily schedules. The parents who make timetables for their children are more successful than those who do not do.Because of this the child knows every hour what he should do or not. The child utilize most of his time by doing valuable things like playing, eating, studying, etc. , according to his schedule. In order to have a well-skilled child, parents need to give extra time to teach and play with their child so that their child can get love and help with homework and school activities. The second thing is that every child copies whatever he watches other person doing. In order to that, parents sh ould be active to watch every step of their child.In addition, they also should take care of their activities in front of their child. For example parents should not do bad things in front of their child like talking loud, arguing with each other etc. Most activity around the child either in school or in house really affects the growth of child. The third factor is healthy diet. Nutritional food has a great role in a child’s life. For instance, if a child is having more of fats and high cholesterol in his diet, it can lead to overweight and if he is not getting enough diet he can lead to underweight.This can lead lost of self confidence and can make a child lazy. Parents have a major role in making their child healthy by giving them nutritious food. The final step is to take care of the character of the child. Parents should teach children to be honest, caring, kind and lovable. some children are very annoying and are hated by all. Parents should take care that their child be haves properly when outside the house. For example some children beat other children and behave very badly in restaurants, school and outside the house.This is hated by all and no one wants their child to be like that. Children should respect their elders and should have a smiling face while meeting others. These values count a lot in a person’s future. Overall, parents have a major role in the growth of a child. Behavior of a child depends on the actions of parents. Parents should take care of their actions and should leave a good impact on them. Moreover, children should be kept well organized and disciplined. They should have the values for how to talk with elders and how to behave with others.

The Effect of Macro Economic Policy on Nigerian Economics Growth and Development

This research work focus on the appraisal of Macroeconomic Policy on Inflation in Nigerian Economy, also to determine how it enhances the growth of Nigerian Economy. The aim of this research work is to look into challenges and numbers of hypothesis were drawn. Information necessary to address the test of hypothesis was gathered through secondary data, source from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN). Economic analysis was used to formulate the three (3) models that were stated in this research work.Multiple regressions were also used to test the appraisal of Macroeconomic Policy on Inflation in Nigerian Economy. The findings of this research show that macro-economic policy as a tool for Economic Policy and Growth as a Positive Effect on the Growth in Nigeria. In conclusion, government should ensure that operational problems are tackled prior to sale so that there would not be any barrier hindering the high degree of efficiency that is associated with the stability of the Nigerian economy.Ov er the years, Nigeria has made conscious and determined efforts to attain a high level of social and economic transformation of the economy in order to attain the development goals and including monetary policy, fiscal, policy, exchange control measures and income and price control. The measures adopted were changed from time to time to reflect the changing economic environment and circumstances. This work focuses on two of the policies adopted (monetary and fiscal policy) and examines their uses for economic growth and stability in Nigeria.Since the main burden of aggregate economic policy must fall on either monetary policy and fiscal policy or a combination of both. The question arises as to whether to clear cut distinction can be made between policies which are termed â€Å"MONETARY† are those which are to be called â€Å"FISCAL† The truth is that considerable ambiguity about these terms exist and this often leads to useless debate and confusion. However, monetary policy can be as a measure which deals with the discretionary control of money supply by the monetary authorities with a view of achieving stated economic objectives.In other words, it employs the use of variation in the money supply to achieve economic objectives. Fiscal policy on the other hand may be defined as the policy pursued by a government to influenced economics activities in economy by changing the size and content of taxation, expenditure and public debt with a view to achieving given objective. Although, there two policies are independent tools of economics stabilization, they are often combined by most countries for a greater effect on the economy. Monetary and Fiscal policies as adopted in Nigeria have four broad objectives.The objectives include: ¬ †¢Maintenance of relative stability in domestic price †¢Attainment of a high and sustainable rate of economic development †¢Maintenance of balance of payment equilibrium growth and stability are so closely related that the economic policy o the government should include both of them. Economic growth may be judges from the growth it total output of the economy as measured by annual increases in net national prod, ct in constant price. Such a measure tells us how much bigger the total economy is becoming over a period of time, but it tells nothing about changes in the standard of living of the people in the economy.The more significant measures in the growth in real net national product divided by the number of people in the population. There are many targets of economic growth and development. They include. †¢Income distribution Gross national product Sectoral development (such as agriculture industries etc) †¢The pressure to attain economic stability or our economic is so strong that measures to promote federal government t fidget. †¢To achieve the maximum practicable rate of growth, d is necessary to have stability. This does not mean a perfectly smooth rate of growth , but one that is not interrupted by recessions and depression. Stabilization policies that are usually released annually concerns attempts to stabilize the level of national income by ensuring that serious inflationary and deflationary gaps do not persist so that something close to full employment without rapid inflation can be achieved. The government uses the instruments of monetary and fiscal policies to influence economic growth and development. The instrument of monetary policy available to the Nigeria monetary authorities include: †¢Rediscount rate †¢Interest rate structure †¢Reserve requirement †¢Direct credit control †¢Exchange rate and †¢Moral suasionSome of the Fiscal policies relating to economy a growth and stability in Nigeria include: tax incentives (capital allowance, income tax relief, reconstruction tax exemption etc. relief from import duties, tariffs measures and budgetary measures. The government uses the instruments in achieving ec onomic growth and stability. 1. 2STATEMENT OF PROBLEM This study is basically aimed at -Has there been effort to study the monetary and fiscal policies used by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) in achieving economic growth and stability. -The ability to access the effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policies. Has there been recommendation to correct observed mistake by (CBN). If done, this will enable the monetary authorities to make optimal use of various monetary and fiscal tools at their disposal for rapid economic growth and stability. 1. 3AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The general aim of this study is to examine the real problem of macroeconomic policy in Nigeria and propose some stabilization policies. While specific objectives are: 1. To study the monetary and fiscal policies; used by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) in achieving economic growth and stability. 2.To asses the effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policies 3. To make recommendation to correct observed mistake by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) this will enable the monetary authorities to make optimal use of the various monetary and fiscal tool at their disposal for rapid economic growth and stability. 1. 4RESEARCH QUESTION Can monetary and fiscal policy be used as a tool to achieve economic growth? Could monetary and fiscal policy assess the effectiveness of monetary and credit policies? Does the policies of the Central Bank useful to achieve rapid economic growth and stability? 1. 5THE STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS 1 Ho-The monetary and fiscal policy, does not achieve economic growth and stability. HA-The monetary and fiscal policy achieve economic growth and stability. HYPOTHESIS 2 Ho-The effectiveness of monetary and credit policies could not be assess using the monetary an I fiscal policy. HA-The assess of effectiveness of monetary and credit policies will attain using monetary and fiscal policy. HYPOTHESIS 3. Ho-The observed mistake corrected by CBN could not be use to attain economic growth and stat lily. HA-Will correct the CBN from observed mistake so as to achieve rapid economic growth and stability. 1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research work will make use of secondary data obtained from various institution and publication. The data will be obtained from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Federal Office of Statistics (FOS), various publications from local and inter rational journal. The research work would be tested using regression analysis especially ordinary last square method will be used in construction the model. 1. 7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY It is hope that this research work will be practically and theoretical significant to the household, firm and government and for the improvement of the whole economy.There is no doubt that this study will benefit quit a number of people especially units involved. 1. 8 THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY This study macro economic tools measure under the period of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) and mid seve nty's (70's) (1978-2006) also in examining our effective and efficient the macro economic tools measures have change in the economy s nee 1970's only the activities of commercial, merchant, special banks and central bank will be used. This will be done through looking into the financial indicators in the economy. -The number of banks in operation Money stock in the economy Growth of credit allocation Banks loan and advances Growth of bank loans and advances Average interest rate (%) A detail of this is in the date analysis which should be treated in further study. Most of the information and data used was collected mostly from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) through their annual reports bulleting and statement of account. This study shall be carried out exclusively in relation to the Nigeria economy. This study as comprehensive as possible except for some constraints encountered during the course of study.There was a problem of time limit for the completion of the work. The regroup an d hectic academic programmes which coincides with exams and period of the study or research was impediment. Inadequacy of data was also major constraint other limitations of the study are time period under study and lack of current year data. 1. 9ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY The project is structured into five chapters: Chapter One dealt with the introduction which includes brief description of Nigerian Economy, Area of merger in the economy, Relevant and Significance of the study, Definition of terms, Scope and Limitations.Chapter Two is mainly the Literature Review and Theoretical Frame Work of the study, the meaning and definition of Merger, motives of Merger and Acquisition, Merger game and the effect on the economy. Chapter Three based on the research method this include method of data collection, hypothesis to be tested and the statistical tools that are to be used. Chapter Four dealt with the research methodology, data preparation and analysis. Chapter Five is the Summary, Recom mendation and Conclusion of the research study. 1. 10DEFINITION OF TERMS 1.Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN): As he only financial institution established and charged with the day of day management and control of the nation's monetary affairs, the supervision and co-ordination of banking and financial activities of the cc entry. 2. Monetary Policy: Can be described as measures that deal with the discretionary control of money supply try monetary authorities with a view to achieving stated economic objective. 3. Fiscal Policy: Can be desirable as the policy pursued by the government to influence economic activities in an economy. . IS CURVE: This is the locus of point r to of combinations of various level of rate interest (r) and the level of income (Y) that yields equilibrium in this product market. 5. LM CURVE: This is the locus of various combination of interest rates and level of income that brigs about equilibrium. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1MEANING AND OBJECTIVE OF FISCAL AN D MONETARY POLICIES Generally, fiscal policy is one of the many policies that are use by the government to influence economic activity of a country at a particular period.This policy involves the control of taxes and government expenditure. It is often called â€Å"power of the purse† instrument and it is design to effectuate changes in output and employment level to the desired standard especially in mixed and free market economies. Aigbokhan (1995) in his book defines fiscal policy as the use of government spending to influence economic outcome through taxation and expenditure or various forms of expenditure so government is directly spending.Fiscal policy like other government policies derives it meaning and direction from the goals and aspirations of the society within which it operate and the people whom it serves pursuits of the goals and aspirations in turn involves the acceptance of the following objective of the and budgetary policy. †¢To make available for econ omic development of the maximum flow with human and material resources consisting with minimum current consumption requirement. †¢To maintain reasonable economic stability in the face of long run inflationary pressure and short term international price movements. To reduce where they exist, the extreme inequalities in which income and consumption standard. Fiscal policy plays an important role in less developed countries (LDCS) because the less per capital income and which lead to government controlling the economic activities because of the condition of the economy. Baunsgaard (2004) observes that fiscal policy in oil producing countries can be profoundly affected by oil revenue uncertainties and volatility. Policy formulation should factor in the exhaustibility of the natural resources and aim at reducing oil revenue volatility passed to the economy.Past fiscal policy in Nigeria has not been successful in this regard. Since both revenue and expenditure have been highly volati le to a large extent reflecting oil price level. On the other hand monetary policy refers to the combination of measure design to regulate the values, supply and cost of money in an economy in consonance with the level of economic activity. Enoma (2002) in his book pin point's monetary policy at controlling supply of money so as to counteract all undesirable trends in an economy may include disequilibrium in the balance of payment.In the same view, Soludo (2005) define â€Å"monetary policy action as any careful or conscious action undertaken by the monetary authority to change the quality, the availability and the cost of money in an economy to achieve a set objective†. There is a consensus of opinion that monetary policy is a policy which aims at influencing economic activities by variation in the supply of money availability of credit and/or in interest rate. In the formulation of monetary policy therefore some attention has to be given to the attainment of these major goa ls of macro economic policy. -Maintenance of high rate employment Maintenance of relative stability in prices -Achievement of high and sustainable rate of economic development -Maintenance of balance of payment equilibriumIn sum, the paramount of embrace objectives of monetary policy could be said to be stable economic growth. However as the foregoing discussions makes clear, the major role of monetary policy in making domestic and external sector stability and thereby creating the macro economics conditions for long term growth. The techniques (tools) by which the monetary authorities tries to achieve the above objective can be classifies broadly into two main categories. a)The direct or portfolio control approach (b)The indirect or market intervention Under a system of direct monetary control, the monetary authority uses some criteria to determine monetary and credit targets and interest rate which are intermediate target to attempt to achieve that ultimate objective of policy. On the other hand, the indirect monetary controls due to the intermediate variables, particularly the market is left to determine investment and credit allocation. It is the attempt to manipulate these policy tools that essentially constitute conscious effort on the part of the authority to regulate the national economy.These tools are as follows:  ¬ (a)Open market operation (b)Cash reserve requirement (c)Liquidity ratios (d)Stabilization securities (e)Discount window operation (f)Moral suasion OPEN MARKET OPERATION (OMO):- it involves discretionary power of the central bank to purchase or sell securities in the financial market in order to; influence the volume of liquidity and levels of interest rate which ultimately will affect money supply. When central bank purchases instruments, it infects money into the economy and bank ability to expand, credit is enhanced and vice versa.CASH RESERVE REQUIREMENT: – Cash reserve requirement are used to complement the operations of OMO. They are fixed as a proportion of bank deposits liabilities require to be deposited with the central bank. They are particularly effective for sterilizing excess liquidity in the banking system and also can be easily monitored on a day basis because they are held by the central bank. LIQUIDITY RATIOS: – liquidity ratios are computed as a proportion of commercial and merchant banks current liabilities such as deposit liabilities, short term inter bank town net balance with foreign branches, and bank free balance with the central bank.Government debts instrument with a maturity of less than eighteen months. Liquidity ratio is used to complement OMO and it is potentially strong tool for restraining credit expansion. STABILIZATION SECURITIES: – Although the use of stabilization securities as an instrument of monetary policy is been de-emphasized essentially because policy has gradually shifted towards indirect control. This instrument of monetary control has been found to be inconsistent with the general philosophy of guided deregulation, although in the past, it had been very supportive of monetary policy.DISCOUNT WINDOW OPERATIONS:- The main goal of discount window operation is to provide collateralized overnight accommodation to discount house as well as banks that could not obtain funds on reasonable terms of discount and/or in the inter bank market. MORAL SUASION: – This is regarded as a special appeal to banks by central banks. It plays useful role in monetary management as a supplementary tool. It enables close and constant interaction between market operations and central bank such interactions promotes understanding and engender mutual confidence between the central bank and the players in the country's financial market. 2. ISSUES IN FISCAL AND MONETARY POLICIES In Nigeria monetary and fiscal policies have been implemented with the aim of achieving sustained economic growth, price stability and balance of payment viability. Utomi (20 05) expresses his own view on monetary control following the Soludo solution on the use of effective monetary policy in 2006 by arguing that monetary restraints reduces the availability of credit and increases its interest cost, it was retarding the flow of expenditures, output and employment and incomes. While monetary case makes credit more available and reduces its interest cost and thus encourages an expansion in these flow.However, a change in monetary policy may take the form of positive actions such as open market sales, increase in required reserve ratios or increase in discount rates which a policy of monetary ease to stimulate the expansion of expenditure will operate through the same process as are restrictive policy but in the reserved direction, such an expansive policy still tend to increase returns on treasury security to improve liquidity of banks to enhance wealth position of all holders of financial assets and to increase money supply.Soludo (2006) in an interview titled my vision for Nigerian banks recognize the expectation of the economy, Soludo said, â€Å"Money capital market should be expanded with the level that is consistent with the economy. To achieve this there should be a refocus more on the monetary function, if it possible to outsource the supervisions of banks†. Duesenberry (1964) argues that some people would like to rely or monetary policy as the primary instrument for controlling aggregate demand.In fact, some would like to see policy decision which influence demand taken out of the political arena while others would like to find a way to disconnect decisions about taxes and expenditures from the issues of employment and inflation. He further explained that fiscal and monetary policies in terms of an annually balanced budget or at least a balanced budget at a full employment level of income would then be possible. This is base on the fact that, monetary policy of a country is directed towards maintaining the right amou nt of money i. . amount of money which will enable stable prices to be maintained and full employment to be shared without introducing balance of payment problems into the economy. Besides, some critics have attached the assumptions of flexibility in monetary policies. They recognized that it takes much less time to put monetary policy into operation than it does in fiscal policy. They propose that it takes longer for monetary measures to take hold, while fiscal policy on the other hand has a direct and powerful impact upon the income stream.Contrarily, monetary policy's first impact is on the asset structure and only through its effect on this structure does it indirectly and with some days affect the income stream, thus heavy use of monetary policy lead to instability in financial markets, while the resulting fluctuations in security or bonds prices may run over it, a general fluctuation in monetary activity Siegel (1965). In addition, monetary policy is more effective in checking off boom condition than in generating recovering from recession condition.If commercial banks reserves are under pressure from market serving operation coupled with a high discount rate and if investment is also largely financed by extension of bank credit, then further construction action by the Federal Reserve will cut deeply into the expenditure circuit and slow down or stop the expansion of the economy. Monetary policy appears to be of limited effectiveness in promoting the high level of employment and high growth rate objective but the economic growth can be best approached through the use of fiscal policy.In fact these few object are naturally re-enforcing rapid economic growth requires a high level of employment and full employment encourages the introduction of labour saving capital goods. Thus fiscal policy contributes directly to both employment and economic growth by increasing gross expenditure to maintain gross domestic product aggregate output level, Baunsgarrd (2004) . He further emphasize that fiscal policy in oil producing countries can be profoundly affected by oil revenue uncertainty and volatility, policy formulation should factor in the xhaustibility of the natural resources and aim at reducing oil revenue volatility passed to the economy. However he painted out that past fiscal policy in Nigeria has not been successful in this regard since both revenue and expenditure have been highly volatile to a large extent reflecting oil prices level. Furthermore, Aigbokhan (1995) argues that in showing the relative effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policy, there is an issue which has engaged the attention of economist for decades that of the relative effectiveness of pure monetary policy and pure fiscal policy in influencing economic activities.Pure monetary policy refers to the change in nominal money supply leaving government or taxes unchanged while pure fiscal policy is one which there are changes in government expenditure or taxes leaving no minal monetary supply unchanged. 2. 3KEYNES DEBATE ON MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICIES Keynes versus monetarist debate gives conflicting advice to government on the role and effectiveness of monetary policy.The Keynesian argue that the interest rate is the most important variable as a tool for the monetary authorities to control the economy, so they argue that monetary policy should be subsidiary to fiscal policy on the other hand, the monetarist argues that a steady growth in the money supply is the best policy to follow and that monetary policy's directed to control money supply is one paramount important. Milton Friedman believes that monetary policy cannot be use to achieve an unemployment which is lower than the natural rate of unemployment.While the Keynesian view argued that monetary policy should be directed at interest rate rather than money supply and that monetary policy should at all times be subsidiary to fiscal policy. The monetarist argued and recommended that control of money supply should be the major concern of the monetary authorities. The general instruments of activist policy are taxes, government spending and the money supply; activist policy can be classified as either monetary or fiscal policy.Keynes (1958) made changes in the long term rate of interest, the main instrument of monetary policy rather than changes in short term rates, he argued that the demand for working capital was insensitive to changes in short term interest rates but that the demand for fixed capital was responsive to changes in the long term rate of interest. Monetary policy is the deliberate control of the money supply and in some case, current condition for the purpose of achieving macro economic goals.Conversely, fiscal policy is the deliberate control of federal government spending and taxes structure and the determination of the volume of tax revenue such explicit purpose of attaining one or more specific objective such as full employment. The income and expenditur e models pioneered by Keynes, view the role of money much differently from the classical quantity theory. He also viewed the link between money supply and desired aggregate expenditure in a different light. He rejected the two classical notions of fixed velocity and full employment.In the Keynes model, monetary policy affects output indirectly through interest rate. Keynes defined fiscal policy as the deliberate use of government spending and taxes to achieve macro economic goal. Although, the federal government account for 44 percent of total (federal, state and local) government revenue and for 39 percent of total government expenditure fiscal policy is conducted through federal budget. In the Keynesian model, the link between increase in government spending and aggregated expenditure is vary directly.Keynes believes that during the 1980s, the world capitalist economies indeed reach equilibrium position but high level of unemployment made this position socially unacceptable. His f iscal policy is based on the premises that demand should be manipulated to ensure that the economy achieves an equilibrium level of income and output which is socially desirable. Although, Keynes rule out other possible sources for increase spending, leaving only government intervention as a dependable solutions to the problem. 2. THE IMPACT OF MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICIES ON THE NIGERIAN ECONOMY The public demand for money balances to hold depends on the level of income and the interest rate of money substituted. The higher the income the public has, the larger will be the money balances is wishes to hold, other things been equal, the higher the interest rate on money substitutes the lower will be the money balances it wishes to hold because higher interest rate will induce people to transfer more of their assets out of money (which yield on interest into securities or other asset which do yield interest).Besides, Imala (2003) emphasizes on the impact of monetary restriction. He ar gued that when banks excess reserves are squeezed, the prices they charge on credit, that is the interest rate are raised, but the lower the level of investment as well as gross domestic product, while the product market decreases. He further agues that credit become higher as interest rate rise, investors and consumers tries to avoid the pinch by reducing their money balances to the barest minimum needed to carry on their transactions and meet precautionary needs.He further argued that rationing of credit reduces the availability of credit and a quick effect in limiting business expansion than they do on higher interest rate while banks sells off part of their government securities to loans and limited by the volumes of securities the bank already have and falling government bond prices in many banks try to sell at once in the capital market.However, a balanced budget seems appropriate when we are satisfied with the existing level of government autonomous expenditure roughly doing, the period of full employment without inflation (A balance budget policy is neutrals government policy that feeds back into the income stream just raise it withdrawal). In fact to avoid the deficit, the annual budget balance raise tax rate to get more money or reduces spending to match reduced tad receipt. If we therefore, believe that the government ought to be trying to expand total expenditure in credit to check the recession, the balance budget prescription to Nigeria economy is quite wrong.Similarly, inflation would generate a budget surplus calling for tax reduction and increase spending to avoid a budget surplus under an annually balance budget policy, this seems clearly than wrong prescription to stabilization purpose because it would speed the inflation ratio than cheating it in Nigeria economy. It should be well noted that the basic framework for stabilizing fiscal policy through government surpluses and deficit is simple and appealing if it is ascertained that the respon sibility of government is to provide economic stabilization for the nation.The larger the excess of government expenditure over tax receipt (the larger the deficit) the stronger will be the expansionary effect of government fiscal policy. Other things been equal conversely, the larger the excess of tax receipt over expenditure (the large the surpluses) the more deflationary governments fiscal policy. Some economist believes that when we want the government to exert strong expansionary pressure on national income a substantial government deficit is desirable. CHAPTER THREE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 3. THE THEORIES OF MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICIES Classical economist argues the importance of money as a determinant of aggregate demand. Their views on fiscal policy were less unanimous. During the great depression of the 1930s some of them recommended substantial increase in government spending as a way of increasing demand, output and employment others were quite skeptical about the effect o f fiscal policy. The evidence provides little comfort for extreme Keynesians who focus their attention on fiscal policy and dismiss monetary policy as a mirage and a delusion.And it provide little support to the rigid monetarist who see the quantity of money playing a predominant role in the determination of aggregate demand irrespective of what is happening to fiscal policy. We cannot count with any degree of certainty on the use of fiscal policy alone or monetary policy alone, there is a strong case to be made for using a combined strategy of monetary and fiscal expansions to combat recessions and a combined strategy of monetary and fiscal restraint to fight inflation.By not putting all our eggs in one basket, we may reduce the uncertainty we would face if we were to rely exclusively on either monetary policy or fiscal. Furthermore, there are other reasons for favouring a combination of monetary fiscal strategy. During a boom in aggregate demand, restrictive steps are desirable bu t restrictive actions are painful. When the government increases expenditure or cuts, taxes, deficit will rise thus money will be needed to cover this deficit and which can be borrowed in the financial market. This additional borrowing tends to push up the interest rate.A higher interest rate on the other hand causes a movement along the marginal efficiency of investment (MEI) curve, investment decreases. D D Source: B. O. Iganige Figure 1: The effect of crowding out: The monetarist view This is little question that some crowing out take place, the issue is how strong the investment demand is relatively unresponsive to interest rates and that not must crowding of investments take place. Consequently fiscal policy is a powerful tool for controlling aggregated demand (and monetary policy is weak).Monetarist on the other hand, generally believe that MEI curve is relatively flat as shown in figure 1 and that deficit spending by the government tends to crowd out a relatively large amount of private investment. In casting doubt on the effectiveness of fiscal policy, monetarists make one important qualification. If the government deficit on demand by issuing new fiscal policy will have a powerful effect on demand, but monetarist attribute this effect to a changes in the money stocks, not the government deficit itself. They see pure fiscal policy as having little influence on demand.Pure fiscal policy involves a change in government spending or tax rate unaccompanied by any change in the rate of growth of the money stock. 3. 2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICIES THE IS-LM FRAMEWORK The economic environment that guided monetary policy before 1986 was characterized by the growing importance of the oil sector, the expanding role of the public sector in the economy and over dependence of the external sector. Hicks (1937) combined the classical and the Keynesian analyses to derive the IS-LM schedules.In a simple term the IS-LM framework refers to the locu s of all pairs of income and interest rates for which both the expenditure and monetary sectors are simultaneously in equilibrium. The IS-LM framework lays emphasis on the interaction between the output or expenditure market represented by the IS and money market represented by the LM. In this framework, spending interest rates and income are jointly determined by the equilibrium in both markets. Income Interest rate Fiscal PolicyMonetary Policy (LM) Source: B. O. Iganiga (macro economics concepts) Figure 2: The Structure of the IS-LMIn the framework, higher income raises money demand and thus link interest rate. Higher interest rate lower spending and thus income, thus the only factor that make the economy to move round is income and interest rate. However, simultaneous equilibrium in the expenditure market and money market exist at only one output level and one interest rate i. e. ye and re. At that point planned savings plus government expenditure and the stock of money in existe nce is equal to the stock of money demanded. The interest rate (r0) and income level (YO) represent the only point at which the two equilibria are satisfied simultaneously.Other interest rates and output levels represent disequilibrium in one or both markets. r0 r1 Source: B. O. Iganiga (Macro economics concepts, theories and application Figure 3 Equilibrium at IS-LM Intersection In figure 3, at interest r1 there is equilibrium in the money market at output Y1 but in the expenditure market at output Y2. Simultaneous equilibrium only exist only at point E0 with interest rate of (r0) and output of (Ye) summarily, figure 3 shows the relationship between money supply, government expenditure and interest rate.In order to maintain price stability and a wealthy balance of payment position, monetary management depend on the use of direct monetary instrument such as credit ceiling, selective credit controls, administered interest, exchange rate as well as the prescription of cash reserve req uirement and special deposits. The use of market based instrument was not feasible due to the under ¬developed nature of the financial market and the deliberate restraint on interest rates. The expenditure market (Is) illustrating the effect of interest rate alone in shifting the aggregate demand schedule.The position of the IS curve depends on the marginal efficacy of investment (MEI) curve. Shift in either or both will cause a shift is IS curve. Therefore example could be a shift in MEI due to technical progress. Net investment will increase at all level of interest rate. Changes in government expenditure or taxation could bring about a change in this schedule. 3. 3MATHEMATICAL AND GRAPHICAL DERIVATION OF IS-LM SCHEDULE Mathematical Derivation For Is Curve Y= C+ I —————————————— (1) C= Co + CY———————————â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€ (2) I= I0-Ir —————————————— (3)Y= Co + CY+ Io-Ir ——————————- (4) (Y-CY)= Co + Io-Ir —————————— (5) Y (1-C) = Co+ Io-Ir—————————— (6) Co + Io-Ir Y= 1-C —————————– (7) -IS Curve Income is negatively related to interest rate. r I S 0Y Source: I. A. O. BAKARE (Fundamentals and Practice of Macroeconomics) (LM) Figure 4: IS CURVE When government spending and taxes are introduced, the following relation holds. Y= C0 +C(Y –T + R) + I0 + I(Y, r) + Go—————- (1) Where T= Taxes and Go = Autonomous government spending The slope of the IS curve is given as dr = 1-cy (1-T y) -1y