Race Riots During the Red Summer of 1919

Race Riots During the Red Summer of 1919 The Red Summer of 1919 alludes to a progression of race revolts that occurred among May and October of that year. Despite the fact that mobs happened in excess of thirty urban communities all through the U.S., the bloodiest occasions were in Chicago, Washington D.C., and Elaine, Arkansas. Reasons for the Red Summer Race Riots A few variables became possibly the most important factor accelerating the uproars. Work Shortages: Industrial urban communities in the North and Midwest benefitted extraordinarily from World War I. However, the processing plants additionally experienced genuine work deficiencies since white men were enrolling in World War I and the United States government ended migration from Europe.The Great Migration: To satisfy these activity deficiencies, at any rate 500,000 African-Americans moved from the South to Northern and Midwestern urban areas. African-Americans were additionally leaving the South to escape Jim Crow laws, isolated schools, and absence of occupation opportunities.Racial Strife: Working class white laborers in Northern and Midwestern urban communities despised the nearness of African-Americans, who were presently rivalry for business. Mobs Erupt in Cities Throughout the South The primary demonstration of savagery occurred in Charleston, South Carolina, in May. For the following a half year, riots happened in little Southern towns, for example, Sylvester, Georgia and Hobson City, Alabama just as bigger northern urban communities, for example, Scranton, Pennsylvania, and Syracuse, New York. The biggest uproars, in any case, occurred in Washington D.C., Chicago, and Elaine, Arkansas. Washington DC Riots Between Whites and Blacks On July 19, white men started a mob in the wake of hearing that an individual of color had been blamed for assault. The men beat irregular African-Americans, removing them from trolleys and beating road pedestrians. African-Americans retaliated after nearby police wouldn't mediate. For four days, African-American and white inhabitants battled. By July 23, four whites and two African-Americans were slaughtered in the uproars. Moreover, an expected 50 individuals were truly harmed. The D.C. riots were particularly noteworthy in light of the fact that it was one of the main examples when African-Americans forcefully retaliated against whites. Whites Destroy Black Homes and Businesses in Chicago The most rough of all the race riots started on July 27. A youthful person of color visiting Lake Michigan sea shores incidentally swam on the South Side, which was frequented by whites. Thus, he was stoned and suffocated. After the police wouldn't capture the youthful keeps an eye on assailants, viciousness followed. For 13 days, white agitators decimated the homes and organizations of African-Americans. Before the finish of the uproar, an expected 1,000 African-American families were destitute, more than 500 were harmed and 50 individuals were murdered. Arkansas Riot by Whites Against Sharecroppers One of the last yet generally serious of all the race riots started on October 1 after whites attempted to disband the association endeavors of African-American tenant farmer associations. Tenant farmers were meeting to arrange an association with the goal that they could communicate their interests to nearby grower. In any case, the plantersâ opposed the laborers association and assaulted African-American ranchers. During the uproar in Elaine, Arkansas, an expected 100 African-Americans and five whites were executed.

One Flew over the Cuckoos Nest Essay Example for Free

One Flew over the Cuckoos Nest Essay The six mental methodologies are organic, learning or conduct, intellectual, sociocultural, psychodynamic, and humanistic. Each approach is one of a kind in its own specific manner and utilized by therapists to analyze the issue. An organic methodology is applied when the there is a known ailment. The ailment regularly associates with emotional wellness, and the arrangement originates from treatment. This specific methodology takes a gander at the entire body. The learning or social methodology is tied in with dissecting the person’s the conduct and adjusting their conduct one-sided on their reaction to the earth. This methodology works from positive and negatives things in their condition, and is once in a while relieved by gets these components and out of their life to fix the issue. The occasions in the earth can be prizes or disciplines that will impact the patients conduct. The subjective point of view is about comprehend a patients thinking and comprehension. How we procedure, store, and recover data impacts our conduct. It is said that all issues are situated in the cerebrum, and utilizing this viewpoint you can locate a clinical issue that is influencing how the mind is functioning. The sociocultural methodology is the point at which the psychological well-being has something to do with the condition that manages development. The way of life where the patient is an enormous factor. In a psychodynamic approach an individual’s issue is inside the oblivious brain. This can be from an emotional occasion that happened before in their life. Here and there the fix can be from the patient themselves tolerating the reality, or recognizing that they have an issue. The last methodology is a humanistic methodology. This is about individual or self coordinated decisions that impact conduct. This methodology manages the physical soundness of a patient to in the end fix their emotional well-being. There is a notable way of thinking that a sound brain rises to a solid body. In this methodology, a therapist will control the patients diet and exercise to recapture their psychological wellness. The medical clinic utilized numerous strategies on the intellectually sick patients. They had bunch directing booked each day where Mrs. Fastener examined the patients and caused them to feel awkward. The clinic additionally had electric stun treatment and lobotomy as other treatment techniques. Likewise, the clinic gave the patients medication, this is an organic methodology, despite the fact that it was given to these individuals reluctantly. Mrs. Fastener likewise permitted McMurphy to get a vote so as to watch the ball game and she twisted the principles or was excessively exacting so as to win her position. This is a conduct approach on the grounds that McMurphy viewed the baseball most likely in his typical condition at home. She prodded him with the idea of watching the game as a prize, at that point removed it. McMurphy had social or learning approach. He would compliment individuals when they did things he thought were acceptable and he would shout at them when he figured they accomplished something terrible. For instance, when McMurphy showed Chief how to shoot a b-ball, he cheered after each point he made. Different patients gazed upward to and truly respected McMurphy, which put him in a ground-breaking position. He strongly affected different patients and they truly respected him. Boss Bromden’s recuperation started when McMurphy went to the medical clinic and began conversing with him and causing him to do undertakings. McMurphy took a shot at boss to check whether he was brilliant enough to finish straightforward assignments. The initial step was him lifting his hands over his head at the ball court, which was the first development he had done in quite a while entire time being there. Before boss wouldn’t handle headings from others quite well. His subsequent stage was lifting his hand to decide on viewing the ball game, which McMurphy additionally energized incredibly. Afterward, McMurphy gathered together the patients to play some b-ball. McMurphy passed the ball to Chief and he shot it, which was trailed by him starting to follow requests and run all over the court. The last advance was when McMurphy gave him the gum before Electroshock Therapy and the Chief talked fo r the first run through at the facility. After this, boss uncovered his insight to McMurphy. Ken Kesey was in every case intrigued, and was capable with the subject of brain science. In 1959 he volunteer to partake in an investigation named Project mkultraâ , this was a CIA subsidized venture managing psychoactive medications. A portion of the medications included were LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, cocaine, AMT, and DMT. This and his work at the state veterans clinic, which gave him access to LSD, roused him to keep in touch with One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest. At the state veterans medical clinic, Kesey invested a great deal of energy conversing with the patients. here and there affected by the stimulating medications with which he had elected to test. Kesey didn't accept that these patients were crazy. Kesey accepted that society had pushed them out in light of the fact that they didn't fit in the way of life, and that they simply needed a spot to keep all the intellectually sick. I imagine that Kesey was attempting to pass on to individuals at intellectually sick medical clinics were treated in a terrible way. He attempted to show individuals that the intellectually sick were most likely protected away from everyone since they were extraordinary. The medical clinic depicted in the film didn’t appear to enable the patients to out or need them to recoup and return home. They appeared to have no rights. These patients changed in accordance with this way of life and didn’t need to leave, that is an issue when the accepted objective was to improve these people’s issues. The prizes from great conduct appeared to be nonexistent and He additionally needed to show how savage the disciplines were in the emergency clinic. Hallucinogenic 60s: Ken Kesey the Merry Pranksters. Hallucinogenic 60s: Ken Kesey the Merry Pranksters. College of Virginia/Charlottesville, Virginia, 16 Dec. 2009. Web. 19 Sept. 2012. . I truly delighted in One flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest. I thought the film was virtuoso. There were portions of funniness, and it kept you intrigued and pondering such a significant number of things. I delighted in that there were numerous primary plots and side plots, similar to the emergency clinic sections the patients, or the patients versus their own recuperation. McMurphy was an extremely baffling character, since he was insane, and no one could make sense of if there was anything amiss with him. I however that placing him in that segment of the clinic was an error, since he is so manipulative and advanced that he manhandled all the hospital’s provisos. Simultaneously he was excellent for the patients. I likewise appreciated the character and all their various issues and character contrasts. I delighted in observing how Billy and the Chief advanced intellectually all through the film. I likewise love the idea of individuals breaking structure, and that is the thing that McMurphy unquestionably prevailing in. This film firmly identified with brain research, since it straightforwardly managed individuals who were intellectually sick. Likewise brain research was included when McMurphy utilized his virtuoso psyche to conflict with the emergency clinic in different manners. Thinking about these plans utilizes a lot of brain research. In any event, for the watchers, the film left you somewhere down in thought, with foreseeing and addressing what will occur straightaway. This film made you think profoundly making this a mental film.

Advantage of Water free essay sample

In spite of the way that water is something that has no taste, we despite everything love it! Who doesn’t relish the sentiment of a cool beverage of water on a boiling hot day? Approximatelyâ 70% of our body’s mass is made of water and as indicated by various specialists, drinking a sum of eight glasses of water a dayâ fulfilsâ the essential necessity of this fluid our body requests. For quite a while now, I have been looking in regards to the advantages related with water. At last, subsequent to inspecting innumerable sites, I  have accumulated a rundown, featuring the benefits of drinking water that can unquestionably help you in carrying on with a sound life. Along these lines, here are the 11advantages of drinking water: 1) Water is the main fluid on Earth that securely diminishes weight. It evacuates the side-effects of fat and keeps you new and sound. Drinking waterâ regularly, stifles your craving, as it were, and restricts your food  intake. We will compose a custom article test on Bit of leeway of Water or then again any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Another unmistakable element of water is that it truly contains no calories, henceforth, contributing fundamentally toweight misfortune 2) Do you need to look more youthful? Issue explained! Simply drink heaps of water each day! Water is an ideal substitution for your expensiveâ ageingâ treatments. Itâ moisturisesâ your skin and keeps it new and sparkling in this manner improving its general intrigue. Likewise, it keeps up the versatility and flexibility of the skin and forestalls dryness by detoxifying the skin. Consequently, one ought to carefully abstain from drying out nourishments and refreshments, for example, caffeine (cola, chocolate, espresso, tea) and liquor 3) Drinking enough water can likewise battle skin issue, for example, dermatitis, psoriasis, dry skin, wrinkles and spots 4) Water is a fundamental segment required for the compelling working of our body since body parts including our cerebrum and the different tissues are for the most part made out of water. Thinking about this, water canâ significantlyâ improve our capacity to think and make us vivacious as well. 5) Water evacuates poisons and a large portion of the waste items from our body adding to a solid personal satisfaction. On the off chance that our body needs water, at that point our heart needs to put forth an additional attempt to siphon new oxygenated blood to our organs causing extreme medical problems 6) An examination led in the Loma Linda college in California, including 20 men and lady in the age scope of 38 to 100 years, reasoned that the individuals who drank enough water for the duration of the day were more averse to have a coronary failure (41% in ladies and 54% in men). Henceforth, it very well may be recommended that on the off chance that you substitute water with milk, tea, espresso or different drinks then you will have expanded odds of causing a coronary episode, with an exact pace of half in ladies and 46% in men. 7)  Water assists with calming migraines and back torment. In spite of the fact that there are numerous reasons that add to cerebral pains, lack of hydration is one of the most well-known ones 8) Regular admission of water expands your metabolic rate and improves your stomach related framework. In the event that you are clogged up, have a go at drinking moreâ waterâ it can do some amazing things! 9) Drinking a lot of water helps battle against influenza and different infirmities like kidney stones. Water, alongside lemon or lemon juice is frequently used to conquer respiratory sicknesses, intestinal issues, stiffness and joint inflammation. In general, water assumes a central job in fortifying your insusceptible framework 10) Research proposes that drinking considerable measures of water is likely toâ reduce the dangers of bladder and colon malignant growth. This is on the grounds that water can weaken the centralization of disease causing specialists in the pee and lessen the time they take to interact with the bladder lining 11) The human body needs an impartial Ph 7 territory so as to work appropriately. Drinking enough water for the duration of the day keeps up this parity. Given that lack of hydration, â€Å"the over the top loss of body fluid† can be a significant wellspring of disturbing one’s wellbeing, it appears glaringly evident that drinking adequate water is of most extreme significance for a solid way of life. Water decides the powerful working of the body and a more advantageous body implies a more joyful life! In this way, in the event that you haven’t as of now, go to the closest water cooler and present yourself with an enormous glass of water; rehash this training eight times each day for best outcomes!

The Rules Of Life: Epictetus View Essay -- essays research papers

The Rules of Life: Epictetus’ View      As levelheaded creatures, we can get aware of the law that controls all things. Prudence comprises in cognizant concurrence with the unavoidable request of things. As per Epictetus’ The Enchiridion, one acts with the ethics of Stoicism: human defect, judiciousness, moderation, and fearlessness. We can relate what Epictetus is stating to our own lives. It creates the impression that some solace comes in realizing that one has no power over the foreordained.      Epictetus speaks to a heap of ideas. One idea of which being that one should live with the attention to human blemish and finitude. He communicates the conclusion that one can give up the sentiments of lack of respect and want by permitting all that is disastrous to show up before one’s eyes every day. Epictetus states, â€Å"Let demise and outcast and everything that is horrendous show up before your eyes each day, particularly passing; and you will have nothing abominable in your considerations or pine for anything excessively† (XXI). It is significant that we are mindful to the way that there is a lot of despondency and misery in this world. In the event that we don't open ourselves to such issues, these things will expend us.      Epictetus likewise passes on that judiciousness is critical. It is imperative to take a gander at all the things that encompass one’s dealings. On the off chance that these things are not rendered, the result will make one disreputably end what he is doing. One must perceive what it is that he is getting into before really participating in it. Epictetus states it obviously: For each activity, consider what paves the way to it and what tails it, and approach it in the light of that. Else you will come to it eagerly from the start, since you have not borne as a primary concern any of what will occur straightaway, yet later when challenges turn up you will surrender it disgracefully†¦You should either take a shot at your decision rule, or work on facades, practice the craftsmanship both of what is inside or of what is outside, that is, assume the job both of a logician or of a non-savant. (XXIX) The case of a competitor is adjusted to explain this conviction. In the event that one needs to be a star competitor, at that point it is significant for one to prepare appropriately and buckle down before the occasion. Assuming that one doesn't get ready for the occasion, at that point the desire sh... ...meone else nor himself† (V). This is, maybe, one of Epictetus’ most powerful thoughts. As this is obviously something that those in today’s society can relate and use from everyday. Epictetus shows us numerous instrumental ideas in The Enchiridion. He accepts that there is a law that manages all things and that temperance comprises in the up and coming request of things. Human blemish and breaking point is an acknowledgment that many still can't seem to come to. What's more, alert is important when deciding to accomplish an objective. It is critical to see all elements before hopping into something that could wind up causing one agony and disappointment at long last. One must pass on a feeling of discretion consistently. Epictetus gives us knowledge on the most proficient method to carry on with a thrifty life. At long last, men are upset not by events, yet by the perspectives which they take of these happenings. The man of incredible insight denounces neither himself nor another when something goes inadequately in his life. As we have seen, it is simple for one to relate Epictetus’ convictions to his own life in today’s society. It is a stunning a ccomplishment for Epictetus to have composed The Enchiridion such a long time ago, and for it to apply to our present world.

Biography of William Wordsworth Essay

William Wordsworth was conceived April seventh, 1770, in Cockermouth, Cumberland. He went to class at Saint John’s College, University of Cambridge. He was said to have adored nature. During school breaks he visited places known for their picturesque excellence. While in France, he experienced passionate feelings for Annette Vallon. They had a little girl in December of 1770, in no time before he moved back to England. Wordsworth had composed verse while he was as yet a student, however none of his sonnets were distributed until 1793.His initially distributed sonnets were An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. These sonnets show the impact of the conventional method for verse in England all through the eighteenth century. Wordsworth had met Samuel Taylor Coleridge, a kindred artist, and in 1797 Woodsworth moved to Alfoxden, Somersetshire, close by his sister Dorthy. Their home was close Coleridge’s home in Nether Stowey. This move made a continued kinship among Wordsworth and Coleridge, and the two of them dealt with a volume of sonnets entitled Lyrical Ballads, which was distributed 1798. Expressive Ballads is said to have demonstrated the start of the Romantic Movement in English verse. Wordsworth composed most of the sonnets in the book, for example, â€Å"Tintern Abbey†. Coleridge’s primary commitment was Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Melodious Ballads was met with antagonistic vibe from most pundits, as it spoke to an uprising against contemporary English verse. In support of his flighty way of thinking of verse, Wordsworth composed a â€Å"Preface† to the second release of Ballads, which developed in 1800. His thought was that the premise of beautiful validity was the true event of the sense. He said that verse gets from â€Å"emotion recalled in tranquility.† He demanded that the scenes and activities of consistently life and the discourse of everyday citizens were the fundamental material of which verse ought to comprise of. Preceding his distribution of the â€Å"Preface†, Wordsworth went with Coleridge to Germany in 1798-99. During this timespan, Wordsworth composed some of his best expressive sections. Numerous pundits consider theories sections as Wordsworth’s most noteworthy work. William and his sister came back to England in 1799, and moved to Dove Cottage in Grasmere, Westmorland. This territory is close to the English Lake District. Robert Southey, another writer, and Coleridge, lived close by. Wordsworth, Southey, and Coleridge got known as the Lake Poets. Wordsworth wedded Mary Hutchinson in 1802. She was a beloved companion, who was portrayed in â€Å"She was a Phantom of Delight†. Sonnets in Two Volumes was distributed in 1807. Wordsworth’s idyllic capacity and understanding got dull as he got more seasoned. His later verse can't match the verse composed during his childhood. Wordsworth was granted an administration benefits in 1842. He passed on at Rydal Mount, on April 23rd in 1850. He was covered in the Grasmere graveyard.

American Government Essay - 825 Words

Characteristics and Functions of American Political Parties (Essay Sample) Content: NameCourseDateInstructorCharacteristics and Functions of American Political PartiesWhen the American founders came up with the system of federalism, and the parameters in which the president and the congress were to be elected, they forgot or intentionally failed to mention political parties. This is a clear indication of their negative outlook towards political parties. In fact, people like George Washington condemned their harmful effects. Irrespective of this condemnation, these early leaders went ahead and instituted the current two party systems. Different scholars have tried to come up with the correct summations of what exactly a political party means. (Maxwell, 119) Defines party as a coalition of interests whose primary aspiration is to win elections. Today, political parties are an important ingredient in as far as democracy is concerned.There are two major political parties in the United States of America. These major parties are the Republican and the Demo cratic Party. Other parties such as the reform party, the socialist, the constitutional party and the socialist party are examples of third parties in the U.S. All these parties have the rights to take part in presidential elections although, the two major parties usually carries the day. The party system is a great determinant in the presidential choice in the United State (Hoffman, 140). Functions of political partiesOver the years, political parties in the United States have survived due to the integral role they play (Maxwell, 119). All parties in the United States share similar functions. One of their key functions is to nominate and elect their members in public offices (Maxwell, 119). Secondly, they disentangle the various issues for the voters so that they can be in a position to understand and take a position on matters concerning public policy. In laymanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s terms, political parties in involved in educating the voters. Thirdly, political parties are instrumental in the mobilization of voters. They play a central role in convincing voters to participate in the electoral process. Lastly, it is up for the parties to run the government depending on the level in which they are active. For instance, Judges in Texas assume office depending on the party in which they come from. It is also a matter within the public domain that these elected officials push for their partyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s agenda. Characteristic of American political partiesAmerican political parties are a unique lot. They hold some characteristics that are hard to find elsewhere in the world. These include; decentralization, two party system and pragmatism.PragmatismThis is a scenario where ideas are measured depending on the results that they bring on the table. Compared to western nations, American political parties are less pragmatic as most of them limit themselves to their ideological stand.DecentralizationWhile looking at the parties from a far they appear as if they are highly hiera rchical, this is not the case. All parties resemble the American federal system. The American parties are highly decentralized if compared to parties in other areas two party systemsThe America political system is highly dominated by two parties that is, the democrats and republicans. Voters mainly chose between these two parties. The affairs between the national and the state parties have always been sour. In most cases the national parties view the state parties as organs that have failed to view the wider picture. The other limiting factor is that a state like Texas has interest groups that interact with national parties. One the other hand state parties feel that national parties do not really appreciate the uniqueness of their localities. These tensions have created a platform in which actions both at national and state level are inter related.Both Texas republican and democratic platforms are totally different. They both however believe that every man is born with equal rights . The republicans in Texas uphold the original American conservative dream that everybody has undeniable rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness (Nelson, 68). Republican democrats on the hand believe that a democratically elected government must serve all the citizens as there are things the government can achieve which are not possible for individuals to achieve. They however differ with regards to the government. The Texas republicans believe that the powers of the federal government should be limited while the democrats view the government as the main source power. They...

Migration in Tamil Nadu Coastel Areas - Free Essay Example

RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS Modelling for pollutant migration in the tannery belt, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India N. C. Mondal* and V. S. Singh National Geophysical Research Institute, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India Groundwater in and around Dindigul town in Tamil Nadu, India, is polluted due to discharge of untreated effluents from 80 functional tanneries. Total dissolved solids (TDS) in about 100 km2 area are observed ranging from 2000 to 30,573 mg/l in open dug wells. A mass transport model was constructed to study pollutant migration. The study area covering 240 km2 was chosen to construct the groundwater flow model in the weathered part of unconfined aquifer system. The shallow groundwater potential field computed through the flow model was then used as input to the mass transport model. MT3D computer code was used to simulate mass transport in groundwater system. The mass transport model was calibrated with field observations. The available database was, however, quite sparse. Notwithstanding, efforts were made to arrive at reasonable guesstimates of the characteristic parameters. Sensitivity analysis, an integral part of calibration was carried out whereby model parameters, viz. transmissivity, dispersivity, etc. were altered slightly and the effect on calibration statistics was observed. This study clearly indicates that transmissivity plays a more sensitive role than dispersivity, indicating that the migration phenomenon is mainly through advection rather than dispersion. The study also indicated that even if the pollutant sources were reduced to 50% of the present level, TDS concentration level in the groundwater, even after 20 years, would not be reduced below 50% of present level. Keywords: Dindigul, groundwater pollution, pollutant migration, tannery industry, weather zone. THE study area, a granitic rock formation in Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu, India possesses poor groundwater potential. Serious contamination of both surface water and groundwater has been reported in this area as a result of uncontrolled discharge of untreated effluents by 80 tanneries for the last three decades1–4. The health of the rural farming community and people working in the tanning industries has been seriously affected. They suffer from occupational diseases such as asthma, chromium ulcers and skin diseases5. About 100 km2 area of fertile land has lost its fertility. Total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration6 in groundwater at some pockets varies from 17, 024 to 30, 575 mg/l. As the discharge of effluents continues, a prognosis of fur- ther pollutant migration is carried out using a mathematical model. A numerical model of the area was developed using the finite difference technique coupled with method of characteristics and it was also used to predict TDS migration for the next 20 years. Sensitivity analysis was carried out to identify the parameters which influence contaminant migration. Sensitivity analysis shows that advection and not dispersion is the predominant mode of solute migration. There are a large number of reports and papers available to describe the solute transport models to study contaminant migration in the industrial belts, coastal aquifer, etc. (C. P. Gupta et al. , unpublished)7–14. The computer software MOC developed by Konikow and Bredehoeft10 based on finite difference coupled with the modified method of characteristics is used for the present study. The area is a hard-rock, drought-prone region situated in Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu, India (Figure 1) and it lies between 10 °13? 44? –10 °26? 47? N lat. and 77 °53? 08? – 78 °01? 24? E long. It is spread over an area of about 240 km2 and is characterized by undulating topography with hills located in the southern parts, sloping towards north and northwest15. The highest elevation (altitude) in the hilly area (Sirumalai Hill) is of the order of 1350 m amsl, whereas in the plains it ranges from 360 m amsl in the southern portions to 240 m amsl in the northern part of the area. No perennial streams exit in the area, except for shortdistance streams encompassing second- and third-order drainage15,16. Run-off from precipitation within the basin ends in small streams flowing towards the main river, Kodaganar. *For correspondence. (e-mail: [emailprotected] co. in) 1600 Figure 1. Location map. CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 89, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2005 RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS The average annual rainfall17 is of the order of 915. 5 mm for the period 1971–2001. Geologically, the area is occupied with Achaean granites and gneisses, intruded by dykes. Black cotton soil and red sandy soil predominate. The thickness of soil varies from 0. 52 to 5. 35 m, but thickness of weathering15 varies from 3. 1 to 26. 6 m. Distribution of the weathered zone varies from place to place within the basin, and as such this shallow zone may not be a stable source for large demands of groundwater. The weathered zone facilitates the movement and storage of groundwater through a network of joints, faults and lineaments, which form conspicuous structural features. Apart from the structural controls on groundwater movement, the terrain is covered with pediment and buried pediment at the southern and western sides. Another most dominant formation is charnokite, which is found in the extreme southern and southeastern parts of the Sirumalai Hill. Groundwater is extracted through dug well, dug-cum-bore wells and bore wells for different purposes (V. S. Singh et al. , unpublished). The general trend of groundwater motion under shallow aquifer is in the north and northwest directions (Figure 2). The groundwater quality of samples was taken twice a year from five existing dug wells (depth range 14. 00– 24. 85 m) for the period from January 1988 to July 1995 and has been monitored by Public Works Department, Government of Tamil Nadu17. Locations of the wells are shown in Figure 1. TDS concentration observed in the field at five dug wells during January 1988, January 1990, July 1991 and January 1994 is shown in Table 1. TDS showed increasing trends. The PWD hydrochemical data indicate that major ions such as sodium, magnesium, chloride and sulphate, and total hardness are also (N. C. Mondal, unpublished Ph D thesis) high, corresponding with the high TDS. The groundwater samples were made available for January 2001 from the field. These data also could be incorporated in the present study. The statistical parameters, viz. inimum, maximum, mean and standard deviation of different chemical constituents of groundwater samples are shown in Table 2. These data show that groundwater is highly polluted due to tannery effluents in the eastern side of the Kodaganar river and western side of the town6. In order to observe the distribution pattern of TDS and to demarcate the higher concentration zones in the study area, the TDS contour map was prepared as shown in Figure 3. Geometry and boundary conditions in the aquifer are generally complex, because the aquifer is in hard rock terrain. Analytical methods are rarely applicable to find a Table 1. Period January 1988 January 1990 July 1991 January 1994 TDS values (mg/l) in five-PWD wells 83029A 465 630 794 1008 83503 1760 1761 1856 2136 83514 1500 2103 2366 3210 83515A 555 762 1217 629 83029 1046 1309 1901 1958 Figure 2. 2001). Water level contours (m, amsl) and flow direction (April Figure 3. TDS contours map (January 2001). 1601 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 89, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2005 RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS Table 2. Minimum, maximum, mean and standard deviation of groundwater Ca 38 1741 288 307 Mg 1 936 145 163 Na 26 4850 348 545 K 1 215 21 34 HCO3 31 756 377 140 Cl 25 10390 1079 1560 SO4 13 961 185 161 NO3 1 252 35 44 TDS Minimum Maximum* Mean Standard deviation 349 17000 2496 2507 Ions in mg/l. *Maximum value obtained in the sample collected from the adjutancy for the tannery. Samples were collected during January 2001. Figure 4. Grid map for flow and mass transport modelling. closed form solution of the 2D groundwater flow equation18. An approximate one, which is traceable, replaces this equation only by finite difference approximation technique. It will be easy to handle for numerical compositions. The starting point for the application of this method is discretization of small rectangular sub-regions in a grid form. The partial differential equations were replaced by a finite difference equation at each node. Several techniques, such as interative alternating direct procedure, successive overrelaxation methods, etc. are available for solving the set of the resultant simultaneous algebraic equations. The main stages of mass transport modelling are as follows: †¢ Solving the groundwater flow equation using finite difference method. †¢ Estimation of fluid velocities at each node. †¢ Solving the mass transport equation using finite difference technique and method of characteristics using the flow velocities. In order to set up the model in the MODFLOW set of codes, the area of interest needs to be divided into a series of 1602 grid blocks or cells19. This grid has to be block-centred, i. e. the groundwater heads will be computed at the centre of each grid block. Taking into account that there are no steep slopes in the water table and that the areal extent of the basin in about 209 km2, a grid size of 250 ? 250 m2 (total no. of grids = 3342) was decided (Figure 4). The layer is in unconfined condition and corresponds to a layer type 1 in MODFLOW. This type of layer requires only horizontal hydraulic conductivity values as well as specific yield values to be defined. The actual values of the ground surface elevation and bottom elevation of the bedrock were entered at the model. This is a simplification of the system and can be justified by the fact that the weathering and fracturing processes actually start from the surface of the formations and gradually progress deeper. The aquifer is dipping from southeast to northwest, with variable thicknesses. In the present case, the boundary conditions had been determined based on the hydraulic condition. Initially, these values were applied in the conceptual model. Figure 1 illustrates the boundary conditions set in the area. A specified flow boundary (Neumann conditions) is one for which the derivative of head (flux) across the boundary is given. A no-flow boundary condition is set by specifying this flux to be zero19. No-flow boundary has been set in the southern part of the basin. There are two facts that justify the use of a no-flow boundary: (i) Charnokite has been characterized as practically impermeable in the conceptual model and (ii) the water table is close to the surface. A groundwater flow divide is therefore likely to occur where there is surface flow divide. The northern boundary of the area was simulated through generalized head boundary, in order to represent groundwater discharge. These values were used in the steady-state simulation. At the calibration time, due to lack of data, it was assumed as constant. Other important boundaries: (i) Weathered part of the aquifer was considered as a porous one; (ii) aerial recharge and pumpages were assigned at random and (iii) wherever dykes and exposures are present, transmissivity values were adjusted and assigned according to their direction and length. The groundwater flow regime model was prepared only for the shallow aquifer zone tapped by dug wells and dugcum-bore wells (up to 27. 68 m thickness). This implies that the deeper fractured zones do not take part either in CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 89, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2005 RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS groundwater flow or in mass transport. The aquifer is also treated as a porous one for modelling purposes. TDS concentration in the surface effluents was assumed to be more than 30,000 mg/l during the period September 1988 to February 2002. The quantity of fluid effluents seeping to the groundwater system was assumed to be 30% of the surface effluents. It was also assumed that on a conservative basis the solvent reaching the water table has a solute concentration, which is 30% of that present at the surface. The remaining 70% of the solutes may get absorbed in the unsaturated zones or are carried away by the run-off. An effective porosity of 0. 2, longitudinal dispersivity of 30 m and transverse dispersivity of 10 m were uniformly assumed for the entire area. The mass transport model was calibrated in two stages: steady-state and transient state. It was also assumed that TDS did not influence by density and viscosity values, which may affect the groundwater flow and pollutant migration. The computer software developed by Konikow and Bredehoeft10, based on groundwater flow equation and the modified method of characteristics was used. Various parameters (collected from the field) were assigned to the corresponding nodes. The purpose of calibration of the groundwater flow model is to demonstrate that the model can respond to fieldmeasured heads and flows, which are the calibration values19. The purpose of this modelling exercise is to solve an inverse problem, i. . to find a set of parameters, boundary conditions and stresses that reproduce the calibration values within a certain re-established range of error (calibration targets). In this case, a trial and error calibration technique has been used. Parameters are initially assigned to each node in the grid. Then these parameter values are adjusted in sequential model runs to ma tch the calibration targets. This method was chosen because information that cannot be quantified is being used (as opposed to an automated calibration procedure). Nevertheless, this method is largely influenced by the modeller’s expertise and biases. The calibration parameters set in this modelling exercise are the generalized head boundary, recharge, evapotranspiration, hydraulic conductivity, specific yield, etc. TDS concentration (C) was then calculated at all node points for September 1988, a date up to which the system was assumed to be in a steady-state condition. There was a mismatch between observed and computed values of C. Therefore, efforts were made to obtain a reasonably better match by modifying the magnitude and distribution of the background concentration and pollutant load. However, the situation could not be improved much. This may be due to a variety of factors, the most important being the lacunae and inaccuracies in the database. To obtain the real representation of the aquifer system, field data (January 2001) were considered for other steady-state condition and were also run to visualize the mass transport model. The computed versus observed C values are illustrated in Figure 5. As the steady-state model could not reproduce the observed data at all the points, a time-variant simulation was carried out. This was done for the period January 1988 to July 1995 based on available historical data. Pollution load reached the groundwater system at various clusters during this period. Computed C for five PWD wells is higher than the observed values. These values, however, could not be rectified, as there was no basis for modifying either model parameters or pollutant load in the absence of any actual field estimates. It should be mentioned here that the present model only illustrates the feasibility of applying modelling techniques to study this problem and to use it for prediction of system behaviour for some future scenarios. The impact of varying conductivity, dispersivity, and C? W (TDS pollution load at the source) was studied. Variations caused in TDS concentration at selected node points as a result of variations in these parameters are shown in Table 3. This parameter was changed by 20% (upwards and downwards) of the value assigned in the model at each node. Change in conductivity affects groundwater velocity, causing redistribution of solute concentration. In general, higher the conductivity, faster is the movement of the solute. Therefore, the concentration is reduced near the sources and increased and vice versa (see columns 3 and 4, Table 3). The longitudinal dispersivity was increased to 50 and 100 m (from 30 m). Transverse dispersivity was taken as one-third of the longitudinal dispersivity. No significant changes in TDS concentration were noticed due to increase in dispersivity (see columns 5 and 6, Table 3). This shows that advection and not dispersion is the predominant mode of solute migration in the tannery belt. The effect of varying this parameter by 20% (upwards and downwards) at 32 source points (nodes taken at the major 1603 Figure 5. Computed vs observed C in steady-state (January 2001). CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 89, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2005 RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS a b c Figure 6. III). Predicted TDS concentration in (mg/l) for (a) January 2020 (scenario 1). (b) January 2010 (scenario II) and (c) January2020 (scenario tannery clusters) was examined. It was found that C rises with an increase in the pollution load C? W and vice versa (see columns 7 and 8, Table 3). 1604 A reliable prognosis of pollutant migration is possible only if a validated model is available. Notwithstanding the shortcomings of the present model, it could be used to progCURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 89, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2005 RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS Table 3. Target 1 16 33 35 36 38 39 58 62 64 75 77 81 K0C (mg/l) 1999. 9 1928. 0 9915. 5 5933. 2 8316. 8748. 4 16737. 0 3004. 3 3877. 8 6334. 3 2308. 0 3000. 0 2895. 0 Variation in TDS concentration for a few target points by varying K, AL and C? K1C (mg/l) 1999. 9 1931. 7 9909. 2 5778. 8 8264. 1 8629. 7 16773. 0 3003. 2 3889. 9 6191. 1 2266. 9 3000. 0 2913. 8 K2C (mg/l) 1999. 9 1938. 5 9929. 6 5864. 1 8292. 5 8688. 5 16758. 0 3004. 6 3890. 5 6198. 9 2275. 5 3000. 0 2903. 9 A1C (mg/l) 2000. 0 1925. 4 9911. 3 5972. 2 8330. 0 8781. 8 16726. 0 3004. 6 3872. 7 6392. 7 2321. 1 3000. 0 2890. 1 A2C (mg/l) 2000. 0 1925. 3 9910. 9 5970. 8 8329. 6 8782. 2 16726. 0 3004. 7 3875. 9 6392. 5 2322. 2 3000. 0 2889. 9 C1? C (mg/l) 1998. 9 1928. 3 9915. 5933. 0 8316. 0 8748. 0 16736. 9 3004. 0 3877. 6 6336. 3 2308. 6 3000. 0 2895. 0 C2? C (mg/l) 2000. 9 1928. 5 9915. 5 5933. 4 8316. 6 8748. 9 16737. 1 3004. 5 3877. 8 6334. 3 2308. 0 3000. 0 2895. 0 K0 is conductivity for calibrated model in m/d; AL = 30 m (longitudinal dispersivity); C? = 9000 mg/l (concentration); K0C is TDS concentration for K0, AL and C? ; K1C is TDS concentration for K1 = (80% of K0), AL and C? ; K2C is TDS concentration for K1 = (120% of K0), AL and C? ; A1C is TDS concentration for AL = 50 m, K0, C? ; A2C is TDS concentration for AL = 100 m, K0, C? ; C1? C is TDS concentration for C1? = 7200 mg/l, K0, AL; and C2? C is TDS concentration for C1? = 10800 mg/l, K0, AL. Targets shown in Figure 4. nosticate some general inferences. The following three scenarios were considered for predicting the extent of pollution in the area at the end of a 20-year period. TDS load remains invariant during the entire period of prediction. (ii) TDS load is increased to double the present level (January 2001) during the entire period of prediction. (iii) TDS load is reduced to half the present level. The TDS load is a result of both the effluents discharged from the tanneries and the leaching of the previous adsorbed solutes in the unsaturated zone. Thus, effectively overall discharge from the tanneries is assumed to reduce about 50% of the present level. The predicted TDS concentration level (scenario 1) for the year 2020 is shown in Figure 6 a. It can be seen that C progressively increases in the area due to continuous addition of solids to the groundwater system. The area in which TDS content in groundwater may be more than 4000 mg/l is likely to be doubled within the next two decades from the present size between the river and town, towards north and west of Dindigul town. Figure 6 b shows a comparison of observed and computed C for scenario 2. It can be seen that at the end of a 10-year period (2010), C will be the same as that for scenario 1, but may still be high at some locations. Figure 6 c shows a comparison of predicted and observed C for scenario 3. It can be seen that at the end of a 20-year period (2020), C will be reduced but may still be high at some places. At the centre of the tannery cluster, C is reduced but in the northern side it increase due to movement of pollutant due to advection. Prognosis using the model confirms that the polluted area as well as the concentration of pollutants in the groundwater will continue to increase in future. The study also indicates that even if the pollutant sources were reduced to 50% of the present CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 89, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2005 (i) level, TDS concentration in the groundwater, even after 20 years, would not be reduced below 50% of the original level (in 2001). To conclude: †¢ The concentration of TDS has been computed through MT3D mass transport model, starting with a background concentration of 1000 mg/l. Even though TDS has been selected for simulation of contaminant migration, the migration of any species will follow a similar pattern as mass transport is primarily driven by advection. From transient condition, it is inferred that TDS concentration has steeply increased in and around the tannery cluster. The impact of varying TDS in the tannery belt is based on advection than dispersive mechanism. †¢ Despite lacunae in the database for the modelling of pollutant migration in the aquifer, it has shown that if tannery effluents continue to be discharged a t the present level, both as regards the volume and TDS concentration, groundwater pollution will continue to increase. It has been noted that even if tannery effluents are reduced to 50% of the present level, even after 20 years, TDS concentration in groundwater will not be reduced to 50% of the original level (in 2001). However, exact quantification of the affected area and concentration of pollutants in groundwater is possible only if one could make a valid model based on a more representative and accurate database. 1. Peace Trust, Dossier on Tannery Pollution in Tamil Nadu, 2000, p. 280. 2. Mondal, N. C. , Saxena, V. K. and Singh, V. S. , Impact of pollution due to tanneries on groundwater regime. Curr. Sci. , 2005, 88, 1988–1994. 1605 RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS 3. Mondal, N. C. and Singh, V. S. , Hydrogeological, geophysical and hydrochemical studies for delineating groundwater contamination zones on the tannery belt, Tamil Nadu, India. In Proc. Int. Conf. (WE-2003, Bhopal) on Water and Environment, Ground Water Pollution (eds Singh and Yadava), Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 2003, pp. 262–277. 4. Mondal, N. C. and Singh, V. S. , Integrated approach to delineate the contaminated groundwater in the tannery belt: A case study. Proceeding of the 2nd Asia Pacific Association of Hydrology and Water Resources Conference, Suntec, Singapore, 5–9 July 2004, vol. II, pp. 436–444. 5. Paul Basker, J. , Tanneries in Dindigul District. Dossier on Tannery Pollution in Tamil Nadu, Peace Trust, 2000, pp. 208–210. 6. Mondal, N. C. , Saxena, V. K. and Singh, V. S. , Assessment of groundwater pollution due to tanneries in and around Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ. Geol. , 2005, 48, 149–157. 7. Konikow, L. F. and Bredehoeft, J. D. , Modeling flow and chemical quality changes in an irrigated stream-aquifer system. Water Resour. Res. , 1974, 10, 546–562. 8. Robson, S. G. , Feasibility of digital water quality modeling illustrated by application at Barstow, California. US Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigations, 46–73, US Governmental Printing Office, Washington DC, 1974, pp. 1–66. 9. Konikow, J. F. , Modeling chloride movement in the alluvial aquifer at the rocky mountain Arsenel, Colorado, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2044, US Govt. Printing Office, Washington DC, 1976, pp. 1–43. 10. Konikow, L. F. and Bredehoeft, J. D. , Computer model of two dimensional solute transport and dispersion in groundwater: Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the USGS, Chapter C2, Book 7, 1978, p. 90. 11. Thangarajan, M. Modeling pollutant migration in the Upper Palar River Basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ. Geol. , 1999, 38, 209–222. 12. Rao, V. V. S. G. and Gupta, S. K. , Mass transport modeling to assess contamination of a water supply well in Sabarmati riverbed aquifer, Ahmedabad city, India. Environ. Geol. , 2000, 39, 893–900. 13. Ghosh Bobba, A. , Numerical modeling of salt-water intrusion due t o human activities and sea-level change in the Godavari delta, India. Hydrol. Sci. , 2002, 47, S67–S80. 14. Majumdar, P. K. , Ghosh, N. C. and Chakravorty, B. , Analysis of arsenic contaminated groundwater domain in the Nadia district of West Bengal (India). Hydrol. Sci. , 2002, 47, S55–S66. 15. Mondal, N. C. and Singh, V. S. , Aquifer modeling study in and around Dindigul town, Tamil Nadu, India. In Proc. Int. Conf. (WE-2003, Bhopal) on Water and Environment, Ground Water Pollution (eds Singh and Yadava), Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 2003, pp. 188–198. 16. Mondal, N. C. and Singh, V. S. , A new approach to delineate the groundwater recharge zone in hard rock terrain. Curr. Sci. , 2004, 87, 658–662. 17. Public Works Department (PWD), Groundwater perspectives: A profile of Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu. PWD, Chennai, Govt of India, 2000, p. 102. 18. Rushton, K. R. and Redshaw, S. C. , Seepage and Groundwater Models, Wiley, Chichester, 1979, p. 332. 19. Anderson, M. P. and Woessner, W. W. , Applied Groundwater Modeling, Simulation of Flow and Advective Transport, Academic Press, London, 1992, p. 381. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We thank Dr V. P. Dimri, Director, NGRI, Hyderabad for permission to publish this paper. N. C. M. thanks the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi for financial support to carry out this work and Dr M. Thangarajan, NGRI for valuable discussions. We also thank the anonymous reviewer for valuable suggestions. Received 10 January 2005; revised accepted 13 July 2005 1606 Lower vertebrates from the Late Palaeocene–Earliest Eocene Akli Formation, Giral Lignite Mine, Barmer District, western India R. S. Rana1, K. Kumar2,*, H. Singh1 and K. D. Rose3 Department of Geology, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar 246 174, India 2 Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, 33 General Mahadeo Singh Road, Dehradun 248 001, India 3 Centre for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, John Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore MD 21205, USA 1 The first assemblage of lower vertebrates comprising fish, crocodilians and snakes is recorded from subsurface beds of the Akli Formation sampled from the Giral Lignite Mine about 40 km NNW of Barmer in Rajasthan. The fish comprise sharks, rays, lepisosteids, osteoglossids, pycnodontids and enchodontids and include among others Squatina, Ginglymostoma, Jaekelotodus, and Gymnura, which previously were not known from the subcontinent, an unnamed new species of Dasyatis, and two unidentified ? ycnodontid-like teleosteans. Reptiles are represented by crocodilians and ? boid snakes. The fauna supports a Late Palaeocene–Lower Eocene age and a coastal marine deposition under tropicaltemperate conditions. Keywords: Akli lignite, Palaeocene–Eocene, Rajasthan, vertebrates. IN western Rajasthan, the Lower Tertiary successions of shallow marine sediments occur in vast peneplained, sand covered tracts in three major basins, namely Jaisalmer, Barmer and Palana-Ganganagar1–3. These shelf sediments have attained great importance during the last four decades in view of encouraging prospects of occurrence of hydrocarbon, bentonite, and fuller’s earth deposits. Despite this, their biotic content in general and vertebrates in particular remain inadequately studied apparently because of paucity of surface exposures. Open cast mines of lignite, bentonite and fuller’s earth in several areas of Rajasthan and neighbouring Gujarat offer an easy alternative to this handicap though collecting sites often vanish by the next field season. Recently we sampled subsurface beds of the Akli Formation in a lignite mine at Giral and recovered rich vertebrate fauna that formed the basis for this contribution and is significant on four counts: (i) it is the first systematic record of vertebrate fossils from the Akli Formation, (ii) it includes four selachian taxa previously unknown from the subcontinent, (iii) it provides corroborative evidence on age and palaeoenvironment of Akli lignites, and (iv) it expands *For correspondence. (e-mail: [emailprotected] res. in) CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 89, NO. 9, 10 NOVEMBER 2005